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UC-NRLF 


B    M    Sfifl 


THE 


GREAT    CENTENNIAL 


EXHIBITION. 


A  M  J  .Mueller  Sc 


PHILADKLPHIA    AND    CHICAGO. 


SOLD  ONLY  THROUGH   AUTHORIZED  AGENTS. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1876,  by  GEBBIE  &  BARRIE, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


ELECTROTYPED  BY 
MACKHLLAR,  SMITHS  &  JORDAN, 

PHILADELPHIA. 

GRANT,  FAIRES  &  RODGERS, 
PRINTERS. 


IF  NO  AGENT  IS   NEAR   YOU,  ADDRESS  THE  PUBLISHERS. 


IB/ 53 


INTRODUCTION. 


HIS  Introduction  to  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1876  may 
be  brief.  All  that  is  requisite  for  our  purpose  will  be 
best  set  forth  in  the  pages  which  follow;  the  general 
public  has  been  so  fully  informed  upon  the  several  topics 
connected  with  the  event,  that  to  go  into  details  here 
would  be  to  occupy  space  which  may  be  better  expended. 
The  fame  of  the  Exhibition  has  gone  forth  to  the  utmost  bounds  of  the 
civilized  world.  The  extent  of  its  aim,  as  an  Exhibition  of  the  natural 
productions,  the  arts,  sciences,  manufactures,  and  fine  arts  of  all  nations — 
the  ingenuity  of  its  plan,  the  vastness  of  its  departments,  its  exactness  in 
particular,  its  beauty  as  a  whole,  its  success  in  all  the  objects  for  which  it 
was  undertaken,  the  feelings  of  amity  and  benevolence  it  called  forth,  the 
enlargement  of  mind  it  gave  rise  to,  the  practical  benefits  necessarily 
springing  out  of  the  scientific  contemplation  of  its  contents,  the  unceasing 
source  of  delight  it  afforded  to  the  thousands  upon  thousands  who  flocked, 
day  after  day,  to  behold  its  treasures,  the  brilliancy  of  its  opening,  the 
harmony  of  its  close,  the  thankfulness  and  gratitude  inspired  in  every 
reflective  mind,  during  months  of  peaceful  and  rational  enjoyment,  undis- 
turbed by  any  painful  accident  or  jarring  feelings, — all  these  are  chronicled 
in  such  variety  of  form  and  language  as  to  defy  the  power  of  oblivion ; 
and  we  may  safely  pronounce  that  the  Centennial  Exhibition  will  exist  in 
the  annals  of  history  long  after  the  vaunted  pyramids  of  Egypt,  of  which 
the  builders  and  the  object  are  already  alike  unknown,  shall  have  crumbled 
into  dust. 

This  book  has  been  written  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  a  descriptive 

5 


M363568 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


and  critical  analysis  of  the  principal  objects  exhibited  at  the  International 
Exhibition.  The  descriptive  particulars  are,  for  the  most  part,  based 
upon  the  observations  of  the"  Authors,  who  have  had  frequent  opportuni- 
ties of  examination.  In  addition,  they  have  availed  themselves  of  the 
co-operation  of  exhibitors  in  verifying  and  authenticating  the  descriptive 
matter  of  the  work,  to  whom,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  proofs  have 
for  that  •  purpose  been  submitted.  These  gentlemen  have  willingly 
responded  to  the  Authors'  applications,  and  they  embrace  this  opportunity 
of  acknowledging  their  courtesy.  Upwards  of  three  hundred  and  fifty 
objects  of  Art,  Industry  and  Mechanics  have  thus  been  accurately  noticed, 
or  described  in  detail:  constituting  a  compact  Cyclopaedia  of  the  best 
things  of  the  Exhibition,  valuable  as  a  text-book  for  students,  and  as  a 
work  of  reference  for  all  readers. 

In  the  arrangement  of  this  work  the  Authors  have,  in  general,  followed 
the  classification  of  the  buildings  adopted  by  the  Commissioners  for  the 
International  Exhibition,  and  comprehended  in  the  Official  Catalogues. 

Part  I,  on  Fine  Art :   Paintings,  Sculpture  and  the  Fine  Art  Buildings. 

Part  II,  on  Industrial  Art,  and  the  Main  Building,  with  its  Annexes. 

Part  III,  on  the  Manufacturing  Machines  and  Tools  for  Working  in 
Iron,  Wood  and  other  Materials ;  and  the  Machinery  Hall. 

Part  IV,  on  Agriculture  and  Horticulture  and  their  buildings. 

Part  V,  on  the  Pavilions,  Grounds,  and  Appendix  relating  to  other 
International  Exhibitions. 

Though  the  Authors  do  not  hope  to  satisfy  everybody,  they  have 
endeavored,  to  the  best  of  their  ability,  to  do  honor  where  honor  is  due; 
and,  while  they  have  avoided  needless  commentary,  they  have  given 
prominence  to  the  more  remarkable  works  exhibited,  in  defining  the 
course  of  improvement.  The  Engravings  will  be  found  of  great  advan- 
tage in  illustrating  the  text. 

(  In  order  that  the  Engravings  should  be  faithful  transcripts  from  the 
actual  objects  they  profess  to  delineate,  the  proprietors  have  been  at  the 
expense  of  having  all  those  objects  photographed  on  the  spot,  with  a 
patience  and  exactitude  that  would  not  pass  over  the  smallest  imperfection 
or  deficiency,  and  whatever  was  not  fortunate  in  the  first  instance  was 
reproduced,  till  complete  success  was  obtained.  The  labor  of  rendering 
fac-similes  of  these  minute  creations  was  immense,  as  will  be  readily 
believed  upon  inspection  of  them.  The  expense  was  of  course  proportion- 


INTR  OD  UCTION. 


ate ;  but  this  expense,  great — it  may  almost  be  said  enormous — as  it  has 
been,  the  proprietors  have  willingly  taken  upon  themselves,  in  the  full  con- 
fidence that  they  shall  ultimately  be  remunerated  by  the  generosity  of  an 
enlightened  public,  alike  quick  to  discover  excellence,  and  liberal  in 
rewarding  it,  and  which  they  flatter  themselves  will  regard  these  exquisite 
gems  with  feelings  somewtiat  akin  to  those  inspired  by  the  skilfully  por- 
trayed features  of  a  valued  friend,  delighting  equally  from  the  truth  of  the 
resemblance,  and  the  pleasing  remembrances  they  call  forth. 

With  regard  to  the  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Exhibition 
itself,  the  ensuing  pages  will  be  found  to  present  the  lively  and  graphic 
description  that  might  be  given  in  the  course  of  social  converse.  The 
objects  selected  for  representation  are  chiefly  such  as  will  always  con- 
tinue to  gratify  the  lovers  of  beautiful  forms,  elegant  designs,  practical 
utility,  and  truthfully  elegant  illustration  of  the  more  remarkable  buildings, 
and  of  which  the  descriptions  will  be  found  permanently  useful,  in  guiding 
the  taste,  and  inciting  to  excellence  in  whatever  branch  of  ingenuity  or 
of  the  fine  arts  it  may  be  sought. 

To  review  the  Exhibition,  if  not  altogether  a  task  of  entire  satisfaction, 
is,  at  least,  a  source  of  profitable  pleasure ;  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
all  nations  by  whom  it  was  visited  cannot  have  failed  to  derive  thence  a 
powerful  stimulus  by  which  to  judge  rightly  and  wisely  of  Art  in  its  many 
ramifications. 

The  Artist,  the  Manufacturer,  and  the  Artisan  learned  the  valuable 
lessons  that  are  derived  from  comparison  in  actual  and  practical  schools; 
they  saw,  and  no  doubt  studied,  the  perfections  and  defects  they  are 
required  to  imitate  and  to  avoid.  Of  the  former  especially  there  were 
innumerable  examples,  each  of  which  might  have  been  accepted  as  an 
instructor.  Already  there  is  evidence  that  such  teachings  were  not  in  vain ; 
and,  with  time,  out  of  this  Exhibition  will  issue  immense  results  for  the 
advancement  of  Science  and  Art  and  the  spread  of  their  salutary  influence. 

It  is  well  to  state  that  this  is  the  only  work  of  its  kind  which  is 
attempted,  as  far  as  the  Authors  and  Publishers  know,  and  the  expense  of 
producing  such  as  this  is  likely  to  deter  others,  and,  now  that  the  Exhi- 
bition is  closed,  it  would  be  difficult  indeed  to  gather  the  drawings  neces- 
sary to  produce  the  illustrations. 

P.  T.  S. 

Nov.  so,  1876. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

INTRODUCTION, 5 

THE  ART  GALLERY, 17 

THE  MAIN  BUILDING, 133 

MACHINERY  HALL, , 325 

HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS, 493 

INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS, 515 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

STEEL  ENGRAVING,     Frontispiece. 


FINE  ART  ENGRAVINGS. 


PAGE. 


Altmann's  Young  Bull — after  Paul  Potter, 78 

Bailly's  Aurora, 32 

Bartholdi's  The  Vine-Grower, 104 

Barzaghi's  Vanity, 114 

Becker's  Rizpah  Defending  the  Bodies  of  the  Seven  Sons  of  Saul,  .    .  106 

Bellows'  Sunday  in  Devonshire, 26 

Billing's  Wheelwright's  Shop, 46 

Brackett's  The  Last  Struggle,      40 

Brown's  Curling  in  Central  Park,  New  York, 56 

Caroni's  Farfalla, 94 

Caroni's  L'Africaine, 76 

Champney's  Your  Good  Health, 38 

Pereda's  A  Child's  Grief, 62 

Daniell's  Carrick-Shore, 122 

Forbes'  Beware ! 70 

Gambos'  The  Erring  Wife, 124 

Ganymede,  Italian, 88 

Gibson's  Venus, 82 

Guarnerio's  Orpheus, 116 

9 


i  o  ILL  USTRA  TIONS. 


PAGE. 

Guarnerio's  The  Forced  Prayer,      100 

Guarnerio's  The  White  Rose,      90 

Karachi's  Arrest  of  Luther, 129 

Hart's  Keene  Valley,  Adirondacks, 50 

Hartley's  The  Little  Samaritan,      42 

Hebe — after  Canova, 66 

Holl's  The  Lord  Gave,  the  Lord  hath  Taken  Away, 92 

Huntingdon's  Sowing  the  Word, 64 

Kensett's  Lake  George, 48 

Landell's  Fellah  Woman, no 

Laporte's  Harvest  Scene, 112 

Lehmann's  La  Rota, 98 

Leslie's  May-Day  in  the  Time  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 24 

Makart's  Venice  Doing  Homage  to  Catharine  Cornaro,      74 

Marochetti's  Statue  of  General  Washington, 522 

Maynard's  1776, 44 

Mercury — after  Bologna, 72 

Michis'  During  the  Sermon, 126 

Millet's  In  the  Bay  of  Naples, 36 

Moran's  New  York  Harbor  by  Moonlight, 26 

Moran's  Return  of  the  Herd,      30 

Mott's  Andromache, 120 

Nevin's  Cinderella, 34 

Orchardson's  Moonlight  on  the  Lagoons,  Venice, 80 

Orchardson's  Prince  Henry,  Poins  and  Falstaff, 108 

Peduzzi's  Boy  and  Bird, 96 

Poynter's  Apelles, 118 

Pozzi's  Youth  of  Michael  Angelo,  . 131 

Psyche — after  Canova, 68 

Rogers'  Hide, 58 

Rogers'  Ruth, 54 

Rogers'  Seek, 60 

Sartain's  The  Reproof, 52 

Tadema's  Convalescent, 86 

Tantardini's  The  Reader, 102 

West's  Death  of  General  Wolfe, 22 

Vincenzo's  L'Abolizione, 84 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS. 


ii 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  ENGRAVINGS. 


Album  Cover, 249 

Antique  Necklace  and  Pin,  .    .213 

Art  Clock, 283 

Artistic  Bronze  Work,  .  .  .  .319 
Artistic  Iron  Railing,  .  .  .  .532 
Basket  in  Filigree  Silver,  .  .  .  205 
Bog  Oak  Brooches,  two  designs,  1 86 
Bowl,  Pitcher  and  Pot,  3  designs,  277 

Brass  Candelabra, 316 

Bronze  Chandelier, 289 

Bronze  Group, .  193 

Bronze  Jardiniere, 534 

Brooch  of  Bog  Oak,  .  .  .  .  .  187 
Brooches,  two  Egyptian  designs,  321 

Brougham, 311 

Buffalo  Hunt, 271 

Cabinet, 215 

Calico  Prints,  two  designs,  .  .  309 
Calico  Prints,  two  designs,  .  .310 
Cameos,  three  designs,  .  .  .  .269 

Candelabra, 301 

Card  Case  in  Filigree  Silver,  .  206 
Carpets,  two  designs,  ....  247 

Carpet, 183 

Carved  Door, 294 

Carved  Frame, 5  30 

Cashmere  Shawls,  two  designs,  198 

Casket, 254 

Casket  and  Top,  two  designs,  .  253 

Cavalier  Standard, 291 

Century  Cup, 146 

Chair, 175 

Chandelier, 143 

Chandelier,  with  droplight,  .    .292 


Chronometer  Lock,    .    .    .    .    .  304 

Clock, 145 

Coming  to  the  Parson,  ....  303 
Communion  Service,  3  designs,  278 

Corona, 179 

Crystal  Standard, 144 

Decorated  Dessert  Plates, .  .  .162 
Decorated  Dessert  Plates,  two 

designs, 188 

Detail  of  portion  of  the  Century 

Cup, 148 

Dessert  Plates,  Decorated,  two 

designs, 190 

Diamond   Necklace   and    Pen- 
dant,     267 

Diana  Clock, 282 

Eastlake  Organ, 296 

Ebony-Case  Piano, 297 

Egyptian  Cabinet, ' 229 

Egyptian  Jewelry,  three  designs,  232 

Egyptian  Necklace, 231 

Enameled  Vases,  two  designs,  .318 
Enlargement  of  portion  of  Cen- 
tury Cup, 147 

Epergne,  Austrian  Court,  .  .  .  242 
Epergne  and  Candelabra,  .  .  245 
Eve  Nursing  Cain  and  Abel,  .167 
Filigree  Silver  Card-Case,  .  .  207 

Font, 165 

French  Clock, 317 

French  Porcelain  Vase,  .  .  .314 
Froment  Meurice  Jewelry,  three 

designs, 531 

Ganymede, 226 


12 


ILL  US  TRA  TIONS. 


German  Jewelry,  three  designs,  257 
German  Steingut,  three  designs,  258 
Glass  and  Silver  Epergne,  .  .275 
Glassware,  two  designs,  .  .  .180 

Gold  Bracelet, 233 

Gold  Earrings,  three  designs,  .  209 
Gold  Necklace  and  Pin,  .  .  .268 
Greek  Vase,  in  Silver,  ....  265 
Group  of  Artistic  Pottery,  .  .  204 
Group  of  Church  Plate,  .  .  .178 
Group  of  Doulton  Ware,  .  .  .166 

Group  of  Glassware, 181 

Group  of  Jewelry,  two  designs,  212 
Group  of  Jewelry,  three  designs,  270 

Group  of  Plates, 260 

Group  of  Works  in  Silver,    .    .153 

Hall  Standard, 290 

Helicon  Vase, 323 

Helmet, 217 

Hidalgo  Standard, 293 

Indian  Bowl, 201 

Indian  Water-Coolers,  2  designs,  200 

Industry, 154 

Italian  Cross, 210 

Japanese  Bronze  Vase,  .  .  .  .220 
Japanese  Porcelain  Vase,  .  .  .223 

Jardiniere, 262 

Jardiniere  and  Vases,  3  designs,  315 
Jewelry,  German  Court,  two 

designs, 256 

La  Margarete  Paper,  the  Dado,  171 
La  Margarete  Paper,  the  Frieze,  1 70 

Majolica  Stand, 160 

Marine  Landscape, 163 

Memory, 306 

Milton  Shield, 151 

Minute  Man, 305 


Necklace, 211 

Neptune  Plaque, 155 

Netherlands  Carpet, 312 

Night — Clock; 280 

Nymph  and  Concha, 168 

Pastoral  Landscape, 163 

Pedestal  and  Vase, 288 

Phoebe  Mayflower, 162 

Phoebus,  Vase  and  Dish,   .    .    .195 

Plaque  of  Iron, 235 

Porcelain  Vase, 157 

Pottery,  Russian  Department,  .  240 

Progress  Cup, 274 

Repousse  Silver  Table,  .    .    .    .191 

Rip  Van  Winkle, 302 

Russian  Pottery, 239 

Russian  Punch-Bowl  and  Cup,  238 

Salver, 255 

Sappho, 169 

Screen, .    .  174 

Service  in  Silver, 272 

Service  of  Glassware,     ....  244 

Sevres  Vase, 322 

Shakespeare  Clock, 285 

Shield, 219 

Side  of  Vase, 149 

Silesian  Iron  Stove, 533 

Silver  Pitcher, 264 

Silver  Plaque, 251 

Silver  Swing- Pitcher,     .    .    .    .273 

Smelling-Bottle, 320 

Snake  Charmer, 172 

Solar  Compass, 299 

Stained  Glass  Window,     .    .    .177 

Surveyors'  Transit, 298 

Swiss  Lace, 313 

Tapestry, 185 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS. 


Tazza,  Morning, 528 

Tea-Services  in  Silver,  two  de- 
signs,     227 

Terra-Cotta  Vases,  two  designs,  225 

The  Charity  Patient, 303 

The  Comanche  Cup, 266 

The  Favored  Scholar,  ....  302 
The  Tap  at  the  Window,  .  .  .303 
Top  of  Repousse  Silver  Table,  196 
Tortoise-Shell  Necklace,  .  .  .279 

Turkey  Carpet, 307 

Turkey  Carpet, 308 


Turkish  Crockery, 237 

Twenty-inch  Y-Level,    ....  300 
Urn,  Reponsse  Silver,    .    .    .    .276 

Vanity — Clock, 287 

Vases,  German  Court,  3  designs,  259 

Vase  in  Bronze, 221 

Vase  in  Porcelain, 159 

Vase  in  Porcelain, 527 

Wall  Clock, 286 

Wardrobe, 295 

We  Boys, 302 

Wrought-Iron  Gate, 202 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF   MACHINERY. 


Alt-Azimuth, 483 

Asbestos  in  its  Natural  State,  .  415 
Atmospheric  Gas-Engine,  .  .358 
Atmospheric  Gas-Engine,  Fig.  i ,  360 
Atmospheric  Gas-Engine,  Fig.  2,  362 
Automatic  Governor  Cut-off 

Engine,  Fig.  i, 466 

Automatic  Governor  Cut-off 

Engine,  Fig.  2, 467 

Automatic  Governor  Cut-off 

Engine,  Fig.  3, 468 

Automatic  Governor  Cut-off 

Engine,  Figs.  4  and  5,  ...  470 
Band  Sawing  Machine,  .  .  .374 
Band  Sawing  Machine,  Rear 

View, 376 

Band-Saw  File, 379 

Band-Saw  Setting-Machine  and 

Filing  Frame, 378 

Blast  Engine, 450 


Bolt  and  Nut  Screwing-Machine,  348 

Bridge  at  Bommel, 440 

Bridge  at  Kuilenburg,  ....  443 
Bridge  at  Kuilenburg,  Details,  444 
Bridge  over  the  Hollandsch 

Diep, 441 

Calculating  Machine,  ....  424 
Canal  from  Amsterdam  to  the 

North  Sea,  eight  designs,  .  .  438 
Canal  from  Amsterdam  to  the 

North  Sea,  three  designs,  .  .  439 
Cartridges,  five  designs,  .  .  .459 
Coal-Cutting  Machine,  .  .  .  .417 
Coal-Cutting  Machine,  Fig.  2,  418 
Coal-Cutting  Machine,  Fig.  3,  418 
Corliss  Engine,  Side  Elevation,  366 
Crooke's  Radiometer,  2  designs,  432 
Dental  Engine,  two  designs,  .  454 
Details  of  Illinois  and  St.  Louis 

Bridge, 410 


ILL USTRA  TIONS. 


Details    of    Planing    Machine, 

three  drawings, 356 

Details  of  Planing  Machine,  six 

'drawings, 357 

Details  of  Reduction  of  Copper 

from  its  Ores, 336 

Double-Acting      Steam  -  Ham- 
mer,      475 

Double  Turbine  Water-Wheel,  434 
Drill  Grinding  Machine,  .    .    .  346 
Elevations     of     Reciprocating 
Mortising      Machine,      two 

drawings, 381 

Envelope  Machine, 491 

Equatorial  Telescope,    ....  390 
Farm  Locomotive  Engine,    .    .  396 

Filing  Vise, 379 

Gaining  Machine, 480 

Gatling  Gun, -457 

Gatling  Gun,  old  style,  .  .  .  .461 
Gunpowder  Pile  Driver,  .  .  .  484 
Heater  and  Force-Pump,  .  .  .  436 
Illinois  and  St.  Louis  Bridge,  .  408 
Jetty  at  North  Sea,  Entrance  of 
Water- Way  to  Rotterdam, 

three  designs, 446 

Large  Size  Steam-Hammer,  .    .477 

Limber  Carriage, 461 

Mandrel  for  Bending  Pipe,   .    .  430 

Milling  Machine, 368 

Miltimore  Car- Axle, 464 

Oil  Cup,  Fig.  i, 368 

Oil  Cup,  Fig.  2, 369 

Oil  Cup,  Fig.  3, 370 

Passenger  Locomotive,  .    .    .    .374 

Planing  Machine, 352 

Plan  of  Planing  Machine,     .    .353 


Process   for   the  Reduction   of 

Copper  from  its  Ores,    .    .    .324 
Reciprocating    Mortising    Ma- 
chine,   380 

Rubber  Cushioned  Helve-Ham- 

mer, 382 

Saxby   &   Farmer's   System  of 

Railway  Signals,  Figs,  i  and  2,  398 
Saxby   &    Farmer's   System  of 

Railway  Signals, 400 

Saxby   &    Farmer's   System  of 

Railway  Signals,  Fig.  4,    .    .  402 
Saxby   &    Farmer's   System  of 

Railway  Signals,  Fig.  5,    .    .  404 
Saxby   &   Farmer's   System  of 
Railway  Signals,  Fig.  6,    .    .  406 

Scarfing  Frame, 379 

Screw  Machine, 489 

Section  of  Planing  Machine,    .  354 
Sectional  View  of  Slotting  Ma- 
chine,   351 

Shingle  and  Heading  Machine, 

Front  View, 472 

Shingle  and  Heading  Machine, 

Rear  View, 473 

Side  Elevation  of  Planing  Ma- 
chine,   355 

Single  Steam-Hammer,  ....  340 

Slide  Lathe, 342 

Slide  Lathe, 347 

Slotting  Machine, 344 

Slotting  Machine, 350 

Soldering  Tongs, 379 

Steam-Hammer, 338 

Steam-Hammer  with  Treadle,  .  476 

Steam  Road-Roller, 395 

Steam  Stamp, 478 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS. 


Steam  Type-Casting  Machine,  .  392 
Swing  Bridge  over  Raritan  Bay,  411 
The  Great  Clock  in  Machinery 
Hall, 413 

Triple  Brick-Pressing  Machine,  420 
Universal  Grinding  Machine.  .  488 


PAGE. 

Universal  Milling  Machine,  .    .  490 

Views  of  the  Element — Calcula- 
ting Machine, 426 

Views  of  the  Element — Calcula- 
ting Machine, 428 

Wanich  Equilibrium  Valve,  .    .451 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    HORTICULTURAL 
AND   AGRICULTURAL  HALLS. 


Agricultural  Hall,  .    .    .    .    .    .511 

Apollo,  Horticultural  Hall,  .    .500 
Brazilian  Department,  Agricul- 
tural Hall,   ....'•..  513 

Entrance,  Horticultural  Hall,  .  495 
Forcing-Houses,    Horticultural, 

Hall,  two  designs, 496 

Garden  Chair,     ........  507 


PAGE. 

Garden  Flower-Stand,  .    .    .    .509 

Garden  Seat, 504 

Garden  Table  and  Top,     .    .    .502 

Horticultural  Hall, 499 

Interior,  Horticultural  Hall,  .  498 
Jardiniere,  Horticultural  Hall,  505 
The  Mill,  Agricultural  Hall,  .512 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    INTERNATIONAL 
EXHIBITIONS. 


PAGE. 

Connecticut  State  Building,  .  .537 
Corliss  Engine,  End  View,  .  .  332 
Crystal  Palace,  New  York,  1853,  521 
Dublin  Exhibition  Building, 


Entrance  to  Main  Building,  .  .138 
Exhibition  Buildings,  Florence,  524 
International  Exhibition,  Lon- 

don, 1862,  ........  525 

Exhibition  Buildings,  Manches- 

ter,   ...........  523 


International  Exhibition  and 
Grounds,  Paris,  1867,  .  .  .526 

Indiana  State  Building,     .    .    .538 

Interior  of  the  British  Build- 
ing,   54i 

Interior  of  New  England 
Kitchen, 542 

Jury  Pavilion,  Philadelphia,  .    .536 

London  International  Exhibi- 
tion, 1851, 519 

Machinery  Hall, 328 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS. 


Main   Building,    from    Judges' 

Hall, 136 

Medals,  Philadelphia,    .    .    .    .544 
Medals  of  the  Paris  Exhibition, 

1867, 529 

New  Jersey  State  Building,  .    .540 

Ohio  State  Building, 539 

ParisExhibition  Buildings,  1844,  517 
Paris  Exhibition  Buildings,  1 849,  518 


Standard    at    Music    Pavilion, 

Central  Transept, 142 

The  Art  Gallery, 20 

The  Cataract,  Machinery  Hall,  330 
Vienna  Exhibition,  Main  Build- 
ing*   535 

View  in  Central  Transept,  Main 
Building, 140 


PART  I. 


THE  ART  GALLERY 


ART  GALLERY  ANNEX. 


|LE  INTERNATIONAL  EXfflBITIO 


THE  ART  GALLERY. 


N  the  following  choice  examples,  selected  from  the 
Art  Gallery  of  the  International  Exhibition,  and 
from  the  works  there  exhibited  by  every  country, 
we  shall  endeavor  to  form  a  permanent  pictorial 
gallery— a  commemorative  museum,  indeed — that 
may  be  accepted  by  all  who  took  a  part  in  that  Exhibition  and 
who  were  interested  in  its  success,  as  a  faithful  exponent  of  what 
it  was  while  yet  in  existence,  and  as  a  true  and  trustworthy  guide 
to  what  it  could  teach,  after  it  had  ceased  to  exist,  and  when 
its  many  gems  had  been  again  dispersed  throughout  the  world. 
Fortunately  this  dispersion  has  not  implied  in  every  instance  the 
return  of  the  exhibited  paintings  and  sculptures  to  their  original 
homes,  and  to  their  producers,  and  to  the  countries  in  which  were 
placed  the  scenes  of  their  production.  On  the  contrary,  the  prevailing 
tendency  of  the  paintings  and  sculpture  has  been  to  seek  for  them- 
selves new  homes,  and  to  establish  themselves  far  away  from  the 
homes  of  their  producers.  Thus  they  carry  out  the  interchange  of 

ideas  and  experiences;    and  thus  the  works  that  originally  were 

19 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  21 

exhibited  at  once  develop  and  perpetuate  the  grand  influences  for 
good  of  great  universal  exhibitions.  All  this  changing  of  the  homes 
of  exhibited  works,  and  all  this  interchanging  of  instruction  and 
suggestion  that  accompanies  every  excellent  production,  go  where  it 
may,  and  is  inseparable  from  its  presence,  serves  but  to  increase  the 
interest  and  the  value  of  a  faithfully  illustrated  work.  Each  engraved 
example  becomes  equally  attractive  to  the  new  possessor  of  the 
original  work,  and  to  the  producer  who  called  it  into  existence. 

To  spare  our  space  for  the  glories  within  we  shall  dispose  of  the 
Art  Gallery  buildings  in  as  few  words  as  possible.  Our  engraving 
of  the  Memorial  Hall  shows  the  front,  looking  to  the  south ;  on  the 
summit  of  the  dome  stands  the  figure  of  Columbia  with  bowed  head 
of  salutation  and  welcome,  the  hand  presenting  the  peaceful  bays. 
The  figure  was  modeled  in  clay  by  Mr.  A.  J.  M.  Miiller,  a  German 
artist,  resident  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  cast  in  metal  by  a  firm  in  the 
same  city.  After  the  figure  was  placed  in  its  present  elevated  position, 
it  was  subjected  to  several  changes ;  at  first  it  stood  with  outstretched 
arms;  next  these  were  put  down,  the  left  hand  resting  on  the  end  of  a 
cornucopia,  and  the  right  hand  gracefully  holding  forth  the  olive 
branch — this  latter  change  rendered  the  whole  more  graceful  than 
before;  but  a  storm  arose,  and  next  morning  found  the  lady  minus 
the  forearm  of  the  right  member.  A  course  of  patching  was  then  in- 
stituted, ending  in  making  a  bad  case  worse.  The  same  artist  modeled 
for  the  founders  eight  figures  or  groups  representing  Commerce,  Art, 
Industry,  and  Navigation,  and  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe. 

The  building,  which  is  in  the  modern  Renaissance  style,  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  granite,  iron,  and  brick ;  the  wooden  partitions  divid- 
ing the  American  and  English,  and  French  and  German  departments 
will  be  taken  away  after  the  Exhibition.  The  State  of  Pennsylvania 
donated  $1,500,000  for  the  erection  of  this  magnificent  building, 
which  will  remain  permanently  on  its  present  site,  and  in  the  future 
will  be  used  either  as  the  legislative  hall — should  the  capital  be 
removed  from  Harrisburg  to  Philadelphia — or  as  the  building  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Museum  of  Industrial  Art  The  architect  is  Mr.  H. 
J.  Schwartzmann,  a  gentleman  of  original  thought  and  remarkable  for 


22 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  i&-6. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  23 

beautiful  designing.  It  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  Mr.  Schwartzmann 
is  also  the  architect  of  the  Horticultural  Hall,  and  all  who  have  seen 
these  two  buildings  will  have  been  pleased  and  gratified  by  their  beauty. 

The  principal  entrance  to  the  Art  Gallery  is  approached  by  a 
broad  flight  of  granite  steps,  on  either  end  of  which  are  two  pedestals 
supporting  statues  of  Pegasus,  in  bronze,  by  a  German  artist,  Mr.  Pilz. 
The  building  is  on  a  terrace  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the  level  on 
which  the  Main  Building  stands;  it  is  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
feet  in  length,  two  hundred  and  ten  feet  in  width,  and  fifty-nine  feet 
in  height,  over  a  basement  twelve  feet  in  height,  and,  as  will  be  seen 
from  our  illustration,  is  surmounted  by  a  dome,  which  rises  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  the  ground. 

The  south  front  of  the  building  is  composed  of  the 'main  entrance 
of  three  arched  doorways  of  equal  dimensions ;  the  doors  are  of  iron, 
relieved  by  bronze  panels  having  the  armorial  bearings  of  all  the  States 
and  Territories,  and  in  the  frieze  is  the  United  States  coat  of  arms.  On 
either  side  of  the  doorways  are  arcades  connecting  the  pavilions,  at 
each  end  of  the  building,  with  the  centre.  The  arcades  are  designed 
to  hide  the  dead  walls  of  the  galleries,  and  consist  of  five  groined 
.arches  each,  and  form  delightful  promenades  looking  towards  the 
Main  Building,  whence  are  wafted  strains  of  music,  and  many  a 
wearied  gazer  has  stood  here  to  be  rested  from  the  crush  within,  and 
refreshed  by  the  breeze  from  the  balmy  south.  Behind  the  arches, 
and  between  the  dead  wall,  are  gardens  with  flowers  and  statuary 
and  fountains. 

The  two  pavilions — like  the  two  promenades — are  alike  in  con-' 
struction,  each  containing  a  window  thirty  feet  high  by  twelve  feet 
in  width ;  each  of  these  windows  were  filled  with  stained  glass  win- 
dows— temporarily — by  Exhibitors,  and  formed  a  pleasant  relief  in 
the  hot  summer  days  from  the  vertical  light  and  heat  of  the  galleries. 
On  the  summit  of  the  four  corners  of  each  pavilion  are  eagles  with 
extended  wings. 

The  north  front,  facing  to  the  Art  Annex,  in  its  ornamentation 
is  like  the  south  front,  but  the  space  of  the  arcades  is  occupied  with 
a  series  of  rooms  which  may  serve  in  the  future  for  committee  rooms 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  25 

or  studios ;  over  these  rooms  are  series  of  other  rooms  which  might 
be  useful  for  purposes  similar  to  those  underneath,  but  in  the  exhi- 
bition they  were  occupied  with  Industrial  Art  drawings,  specimens 
of  interior  decoration,  and  cheap  chromos, — the  latter  a  curious  per- 
version of  the  uses  of  an  art  gallery,  and  not  creditable  to  the  taste 
or  judgment  of  the  superintendent  of  that  department. 

The  walls  of  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  building  display  the 
pavilions,  and  the  walls  of  the  galleries— and  these  are  relieved  by 
niches  in  which  are  to  be  placed  statues.  A  terrace  with  parterres 
of  flowers  and  grass  surrounds  the  whole  building  except  the  north 
front,  and  the  bronzes  of  the  Dying  Lionness  on  the  south-east  corner 
and  the  Naval  Trophy  on  the  south-west  corner  of  the  terrace 
relieve  the  comparative  flatness  of  the  ground. 

When  the  wooden  partitions  in  the  principal  gallery  shall  have 
been  taken  down,  it  will  form  a  vast  hall  with  noble  arches  and 
great  height,  and  capable  of  containing  upwards  of  seven  thousand 
people ;  but  now  we  are  inside — let  us  see  if  we  recognize 
any  of  the  master-hands  which  have  been  using  mallet  and  chisel 
and  pigments  for  this  display. 

Washington  !  Is  it  thus  we  are  to  be  greeted  ?  This  large  bust 
in  plaster  by  Sefior  Guarnerio,  of  Milan,  is  nothing  to  make  one 
start  in  surprise,  unless  it  be  in  the  surprise  of  admiration,  for, 
Italian  though  he  be,  he  has  made  an  excellent  study,  and  no  one 
can  look  at  that  face  without  feeling  proud  and  grateful  and  rev- 
erent; but  it  is  possible  to  have  too  much  of  a  good  thing,  and 
judging  from  the  every  conceivable  material  in  which  the  "  first 
in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in 'the  hearts  of  his  countrymen" 
is  represented  to  us  by  foreign  artists  and  artisans,  one  would  fancy 
that  we  are  a  people  who  have  never  known  the  first  president 
except  by  the  page  of  history  and  the  musty  records  of  politics. 

But  it  will  not  do  to  stand  gazing  at  this,  or  turn  to  look  at 
Pozzi's  marble  of  Michael  Angelo,  seated,  and  working  at  a  head, 
or  stare  in  fascination  at  the  duplicates  in  bronze  of  Rossetti's 
"  Steam"  and  "  Electricity,"  or  marvel  at  the  verisimilitude  of  Living- 
stone's statue  in  bronze,  but  let  us  pass  into  the  departments  of 


26 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  various    countries,  and    take    our   readers  with  us   as  we   look 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  27 


for    such    pictures    as    are    worth    remembering,    and    if    possible; 
studying. 

Naturally  we  turn  to  the  American  department,*  and  as  we 
do  so  we  think  of  the  period,  not  so  far  distant,  when,  being  in 
its  infancy,  there  were  few  representatives  of  this  signification  of 
civilization;  but  new  as  is  our  country  it  furnished  the  parent 
country  with  -Benjamin  West  upwards  of  a  century  ago.  Here 
are  two  of  West's  most  famous  pictures — "Christ  Blessing  Little 
Children,"  in  the  English  department,  and  his  "  Death  of  General 
Wolfe" — the  latter  loaned  for  this  Exhibition  by  Queen  Victoria. 
The  "  Death  of  Wolfe"  is  one  of  his  most  striking  pictures ;  it  is 
noble, 'natural,  and  a  subject  for  which  his  nationality  qualified  him 
particularly.  In  the  picture  he  has  introduced  his  old  friends — 
those  who  are  said  to  have  taught  him  the  secret  of  the  mixture 
of  their  war-paints — the  red  Indians — strange  and  picturesque  beings 
to  those  English  who  first  saw  this  grand  picture.  We  present  on 
page  22  an  engraving  of  the  "  Death  of  Wolfe."  The  picture  itself 
is  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  It  was  first  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  where  it  was  admired  and  received  with  acclamation. 
When  it  became  known  that  he  was  painting  this  picture  in  the 
unclassic  manner  with  boots,  buttons  and  blunderbusses  — the 
characters  as  they  had  actually  appeared  on  the  scene,  and  not 
naked  warriors  with  bows,  buckles  and  battering-rams — the  Arch- 
bishop of  York  and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  called  at  his  studio  to 
expostulate  with  him  at  this  departure  from  the  conventional 
manner,  and  to  declare  that  it  would  ruin  his  prospects  as  an 
historical  painter;  but  the  picture  was  now  well  advanced,  and 
West  adhering  to  his  opinion,  Sir  Joshua  seated  himself  before 
the  picture,  examined  it  with  deep  and  minute  attention  for  half 
an  hour,  then  rising,  said  to  the  Archbishop,  "West  has  con- 
quered :  he  has  treated  his  subject  as  it  ought  to  be  treated.  I 
retract  my  objections ;  I  see  that  this  picture  will  not  only  become 


*  As  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  do  the  departments  in  the  two  divisions  where  the 
exhibits  are  divided  between  the  Art  Gallery  and  the  Art  Gallery  Annex,  we  shall  finish 
completely  one  country's  exhibit  before  taking  up  another. 


28 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  29 

popular,  but  will  occasion  a  revolution  in  art."  When  this  reached 
the  ears  of  our  enemy,  George  III,  "I  wish,"  he  said,  "that  I  had 
known  all  this  before,  for  the  objection  has  been  the  means  of 
Lord  Grosvenor's  getting  the  picture,  but  West  shall  make  a  copy 
for  me;"  and  West  made  the  "copy"  which  has  descended  to  his 
successor,  Queen  Victoria,  and  thousands  of  Americans  have  had 
the  privilege  of  looking  upon  a  picture  by  the  first  great  American 
artist,  which  verified  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds'  prophecy. 

The  outline  of  West's  life  is  so  well  known  to  the  public  that 
it  would  be  a  work  of  supererogation  to  furnish  those  details — 
although  they  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  our  work;  but 
his  artistic  life  is  unfortunately  not  so  familiar  in  our  memories, 
and  if  some  good  biographer  would  do  this  work  he  would  be 
rewarded  by  producing  a  charming  book — almost  romantic — and 
the  public  would  discover  a  new  source  of  enjoyment.  We  shall 
finish  this  with  an  anecdote  of  West,  which  will  give  an  insight 
to  his  youthful  character  and  ambition. 

In  the  ninth  year  of  his  age  he  accompanied  his  relative, 
Pennington,  to  Philadelphia,  and  executed  a  view  of  the  banks  of 
the  river,  which  so  much  pleased  a  painter  named  Williams  that 
he  took  him  to  his  studio  and  showed  him  all  his  pictures,  at 
sight  of  which  he  was  so  affected  that  he  burst  into  tears.  The 
artist,  surprised,  declared  that  Benjamin  would  be  a  remarkable 
man.  He  gave  him  two  books  on  Painting,  and  invited  him  to 
call,  whenever  he  pleased,  to  see  his  pictures.  From  this  time 
Benjamin  resolved  to  become  a  painter,  and  returned  home  with 
the  love  of  painting  too  firmly  planted  to  be  eradicated.  His 
parents,  too,  though  the  art  was  not  approved  by  the  Friends,  now 
openly  encouraged  him,  being  strongly  impressed  with  the  opinion 
that  he  was  predestinated  to  become  an  artist.  His  notions  of  a 
painter  at  this  time  were  also  very  grand,  as  the  following  charac- 
teristic anecdote  will  show.  One  of  his  school-fellows  allured  him, 
on  a  half  holiday  from  school,  to  take  a  ride  with  him  to  a  neigh  - 
boring  plantation.  "  Here  is  the  horse,  bridled  and  saddled,"  said 
the  boy;  "so  come,  get  up  behind  me."  "Get  up  behind  you!" 


3° 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  31 


said  Benjamin;  "I  will  ride  behind  nobody."  "Oh,  very  well!"  said 
the  boy;  "I  will  ride  behind  you;  so  mount!"  He  mounted 
accordingly,  and  away  they  rode.  "  This  is  the  last  ride  I  shall 
have  for  some  time,"  said  his  companion;  "to-morrow  I  arn  to  be 
apprenticed  to  a  tailor."  "A  tailor!"  exclaimed  West;  •' surely  you 
will  never  be  a  tailor?"  "Indeed  but  I  shall,"  rejoined  the  other; 
"it  is  a  good  trade.  What  do  you  intend  to  be,  Benjamin?"  "A 
painter."  "A  painter!  What  sort  of  trade  is  a  painter?  I  never 
heard  of  it  before."  "A  painter,"  said  West,  "is  the  companion  of 
kings  and  emperors."  "You  are  surely  mad"  said  the  embryo  tailor, 
"there  are  neither  kings  nor  emperors  in  America."  "Aye,  but  there 
are  plenty  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  And  do  you  really  intend  to 
be  a  tailor?"  "Indeed  I  do;  there  is  nothing  surer."  "Then  you 
may  ride  alone,"  said  the  future  companion  of  kings  and  emperors, 
leaping  down;  "I  will  not  ride  with  one  who  is  willing  to  be  a 
tailor."  This  was  a  hundred  and  thirty  years  ago. 

West's  family  were  descended  from  English  settlers  and  farmers, 
and  were  Quakers  by  persuasion.  Reared  in  a  sect  which  abjured 
painting  as  a  worldly  and  sensual  art,  the  lad's  promptings  to  the 
practice  of  painting  had  no  outer  aid,  and  were  pursued  in  spite 
of  the  remonstrances  and  admonitions  of  the  Friends,  though  it 
does  not  seem  that  his  father  and  mother  opposed  his  exercise 
of  the  gift  which  he  had  received.  It  is  said  that  some  Indians,  who 
had  imparted  to  him  the  secrets  of  the  mixture  of  their  war  paint, 
were  his  first  teachers,  to  their  red  and  yellow  his  mother  added 
indigo,  and  his  brush  he  made  from  hairs  cut  from  the  cat's  back. 
A  council  of  neighboring  Quakers,  called  together  to  decide  on 
the  question  of  young  West's  infringement  of  the  rules  of  the 
sect,  agreed  wisely  and  reverently  that  God  would  not  bestow 
faculties  and  forbid  their  employment,  and  gave  West  permission 
to  follow  his  calling.  The  women  rose  and  kissed  him,  and  the 
men  one  by  one  laid  their  hands  on  his  head,  a  solemn  dedication 
which  he  never  forgot. 

Having  studied  under  Williams,  West  tried  portait  pajnting, 
first  in  Philadelphia,  and  afterwards  in  New  York.  He  was  then 


32 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


but  twenty  years  of  age,  and  in  his  twenty-second  year,   1760,  his 


•  The  Great  Exhibition."} 


AURORA. 

.  A.  Bailly,  Sculptor. 


|  The  Art  Gallery. 


ambition    and    discretion    led    him    to   travel   to    Italy,   where    he 
studied  for  three  years.     His  intention  was  to  return  to  America, 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  33 


and  merely  to  visit  England  on  his  way  home;  but  on  his  arrival 
in  London  he  found  his  prospects  there  so  promising,  that  he  sent 
for  the  young  American  girl  to  whom  he  was  engaged,  married, 
and  settled  with  her  in  the  old  country,  in  his  twenty-seventh 
year,  1765. 

The  Archbishop  of  York  presented  West  to  king  George  III, 
who  took  a  violent  fancy  to  the  young  man,  quiet,  steady,  and 
domestic,  as  the  king  himself.  George's  not  very  intellectual  or 
artistic  taste  imagined  that  he  had  discovered — with  all  the  glory 
of  the  discovery — a  great  genius.  The  American  war  did  not 
shake  the  king's  fidelity  to  his  protege.  George  Ill's  almost  entire 
patronage  was  thenceforth  given  to  Benjamin  West.  The  royal 
regard,  thus  exclusive,  was  viewed  with  lively  indignation  by  many 
other  painters,  with  claims  to  notice,  but  struggling  for  bread, 
while  West  was  receiving  from  royal  commissions,  for  a  period  of 
thirty  years,  sums  at  the  rate  of  a  thousand  pounds  a  year— then 
considered  a  large  income  to  be  derived  from  art.  Neither  was 
the  king's  exclusive  patronage  beneficial  to  Benjamin  West  himself 
as  an  artist,  though  as  a  man  he  remained  the  simple,  unpretending, 
kindly  man  he  had  come  to  England.  He  soon  renounced  portrait 
painting  for  historical  and  religious  painting,  and  the  constant 
demands  made  on  his  imagination,  together  with  the  absence  of 
any  stimulating  competition  or  anxiety  with  regard  to  worldly  suc- 
cess, and  perhaps— unassuming  man  though  he  was— in  consequence 
also  of  the  constant  sops  administered  by  royal  favor,  to  his  self- 
satisfaction,  West's  invention  became  wearisomely  dull  and  tame. 

After  the  king  fell  sick,  and  when  West  was  left  more  to  his 
own  resources,  he  seemed  to  take  a  new  start  in  his  art,  and  his 
"Christ  Healing  the  Sick"  and  "  Death  on  the  Pale  Horse"  are 
much  valued.  West  was  one  of  the  first  thirty-six  members  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
president,  retaining  the  office  till  West's  death,  at  the  age  of 
eighty-two  years,  in  1820. 

Another  American  had  arrived  in  London  to  dispute  the  palm 
of  victory  with  the  English  painters.  John  Singleton  Copley  was 


34 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


born  at  Boston,  in  1737.  He  went  to  England  in  1774,  and  after 
visiting  Rome,  settled  in  England  in  1775.  Like  West  he  had 
been  a  portrait  painter,  and,  like  him  also,  Copley  adopted  historical 
painting  as  his  chosen  branch  of  art.  Like  West  still,  and  very 
unlike  Barry,  or  the  later  British  historical  and  imaginative  painters, 
Copley  had  a  prosperous  history.  He  was  fortunate  in  taking  for 
his  first  historical  work  a  contemporary  scene,  which  made  a  deep 
impression  on  the  English  nation — "The  Death  (or  rather  the 
death-blow)  of  Chatham  in  the  House  of  Lords."  Popular  as  this 
picture  became  through  engravings,  it  was  inferior  to  a  later  work 


"The  Great  Exhibition."} 


CINDERELLA.  [Art  department  of  Women's  Pavilion. 

Blanche  Nevin,  Sculptor. 


of  Copley's — "The  Death  of  Major  Pierson"  (in  the  rescue  of  the 
island  of  Jersey  from  the  French)— which  is  regarded  as  superior 
to  West's  "Death  of  Wolfe."  Copley  introduced  successfully  por- 
traits into  his  historical  pictures. 

In  character,  Copley  was  industrious,  painstaking,  and  unobtru- 
sive. He  died  full  of  years,  and  having  attained  an  honorable 
independence,  in  his  seventy-ninth  year,  in  1815,  and  left  a  more 
distinguished  son— the  great  barrister  and  chancellor,  Lord  Lynd- 
hurst,  who  continued  for  many  years  to  reside  in  his  father's  old 
house  in  George  Street,  Hanover  Square,  where  many  of  the 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  35 

painter's  works  were  retained  and  cherished.  As  a  historical 
painter,  Copley,  while  a  far  less  cultivated  artist,  is  said  to  have 
been  fresher  and  more  original  than  West. 

A  contemporary  of  West,  and  belonging  to  the  generation  just 
before  that  of  Leslie,  Washington  Allston  was  born  in  1779,  at 
Waccamaw,  South  Carolina.  His  father  was  a  planter.  As  young 
Allston's  health  was  delicate,  and  his  father's  plantation  remote, 
the  boy  was  sent  for  physical  bracing  and  for  mental  training  to 
Newport,  Rhode  Island.  He  remained  there  for  ten  years. 

According  to  Mr.  Tuckerman,  one  of  the  earliest  impulses  to 
American  art  was  given  in  New  England  by  the  first  visit  of  an 
English  painter  of  note  with  Dean  Berkeley  in  1728,  together 
with  the  influence  of  the  painter  Gilbert  Stewart,  who  was  con- 
nected with  Newport. 

Allston's  boyish  intimacy  with  Malbone,  afterwards  a  well-known 
miniature  painter,  seems  to  have  turned  his  attention  to  art.  The 
two  friends  went  together  to  England  in  1801,  when  Allston  was 
twenty-two  years  of  age.  He  became  at  once  a  student  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  of  which  his  countryman  West  was  President. 
According  to  Allston  himself,  his  favorite  subjects  were  then 
banditti,  and  he  was  more  than  a  year  in  England  before  he  got 
over  the  mania.  When  he  made  known  his  purpose  of  becoming 
a  historical  painter,  he  was  told  by  Fuseli — "You  have  come  a 
great  way  to  starve."  Allston  remained  for  three  years  in  Lon- 
don, receiving  great  kindness  from  West,  and  having  for  the  chief 
of  his  many  friends  Moore,  the  author  of  "  Zeluco,"  and  Fuseli. 
In  1804  he  visited  Paris  along  with  another  American  painter,  and 
after  studying  the  accumulated  treasures  of  the  Louvre  while  they 
were  yet  intact,  proceeded  to  Italy,  where  he  spent  four  years,  for 
the  most  part  in  Rome.  There  he  met  the  sculptor  Thorwaldsen 
and  the  poet  Coleridge,  and  entered  into  a  'lasting  friendship  with 
them,  while,  like  Leslie,  he  profited  by  an  intimate  companionship 
with  their  countryman,  Washington  Irving. 

Washington  Irving  describes  Allston  as  being  then  a  singularly 
attractive  young  man.  "Light  and  graceful"  in  figure,  and  "with 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


large  blue  eyes,  and  black,  silken  hair,  waving  and  curling  round 
a  pale  expressive  countenance.  Everything  about  him  bespoke 
the  man  of  intellect  and  refinement."  Allston  gave  Irving  good 
advice  while  they  were  visiting  in  company  the  Roman  galleries 
— "Never  attempt  to  enjoy  every  picture  in  a  great  collection 
unless  you  have  a  year  to  bestow  upon  it.  You  may  as  well 


attempt  to  enjoy  every  dish  at  a  Lord  Mayor's  feast.  Both  mind 
and  palate  get  confounded  by  a  great  variety  and  rapid  succession 
even  of  delicacies."  While  Allston  was  in  Italy  foreigners  called 
him  "the  American  Titian." 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  37 

He  returned  to  America  in  1809,  when  he  was  thirty  years  of 
age,  and  married  a  sister  of  Dr.  Channing's,  but  did  not  then  settle 
in  his  native  country.  He  started  afresh  for  England,  where,  in 
spite  of  Fuseli's  former  warning,  his  first  exhibited  picture  was 
from  sacred  history,  and  was  "The  Dead  Man  Revived."  The 
painter  had  the  satisfaction  of  receiving  from  the  British  Institution 
their  prize  of  two  hundred  guineas  for  historical  painting,  and  of 
having  his  picture  bought  and  transported  to  his  own  country  by 
the  Pennsylvania  Academy.  His  next  picture  was  ordered  by  Sir 
George  Beaumont,  and  was  "St.  Peter  liberated  by  the  Angel." 
Two  other  pictures  were  "Uriel  in  the  Sun,"  now  in  the  possession 
of  the  Duke  of  Sutherland,  and  "Jacob's  Dream,"  which  is  in  the 
collection  of  Lord  Egremont  at  Petworth.  The  British  Institution 
awarded  the  painter  the  siim  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  guineas  for 
"Uriel  in  the  Sun." 

At  this  time  Allston,  while  working  hard  to  the  overtaxing 
of  his  strength,  found  ready  and  liberal  purchasers  for  his  works, 
and  was  surrounded  by  congenial  friends,  among  them  young 
Leslie,  who  lived  for  some  time  in  his  house. 

While  in  this  prosperous  and  happy  condition  he  was  suddenly 
afflicted  with  the  loss  of  his  wife,  and  his  health  and  spirits  were 
so  affected  that  he  returned  to  America,  in  1818,  when  he  was  in 
his  fortieth  year.  He  carried  with  him  only  one  completed  picture, 
that  of  "Elijah  in  the  Wilderness,"  which  was  subsequently  bought 
and  brought  back  to  England  by  the  Hon.  Mr.  Labouchere. 
About  this  time  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  showed  the  respect 
in  which  they  had  held  Allston  by  electing  him  a  member  of  the 
Academy. 

Allston  resided  twelve  years  in  Boston,  where  he  painted  The 
Prophet  Jeremiah,"  "Saul  and  the  Witch  of  Endor,"  "Miriam  Sing- 
ing the  Song  of  Triumph,"  and  "Dante's  Beatrice."  In  1830, 
Allston,  in  his  fifty-second  year,  married  for  his  second  wife,  a 
daughter  of  the  late  Chief  Justice  Dana  of  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  removed  his  studio  to  Cambridge,  where  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  days,  which  were  those  of  an  invalid,  painting  when 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


he  could,  and  leading  a  life  of  great  seclusion,  though  he  enjoyed 
the  society  of  a  few  friends  and  the  visits  of  painters  and  lovers 
of  art,  among  them  Lord  Morpeth  and  Mrs.  Jameson. 

Allston  was  a   man  of  earnest   religious    faith,  great   conscien- 
tiousness, and   high  ideas  with  regard  to  the  aim  and  end  of  his 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


YOUR  GOOD  HEALTH!' 
Ky  y.  //-'.  Champney. 


[The  At  t  Gallery* 


profession.  Mr.  Tuckerman  tells  us  that  the  painter,  "when  crip- 
pled in  resources  in  London,"  had  sold  a  picture  for  a  considerable 
sum,  but  that  it  occurred  to  him,  after  the  sale,  that  the  subject 
might  have  an  evil  effect  on  a  perverted  taste  and  imagination, 
when  he  instantly  returned  the  money,  and  regained  and  destroyed 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  39 

the  picture.  He  would  relate  "with  much  solemnity,0  how  on  one 
occasion  of  keen  deprivation  and  discouragement  his  prayer  was 
answered  as  soon  as  uttered.  He  was  a  man  of  large  sympathies, 
calling  himself  with  justice  "a  wide  liker."  He  was  generous  and 
kind  to  young  artists,  who  were  fond  of  styling  him  "the  Master." 
In  those  later  days  Allston  was  still  distinguished  by  his  personal 
advantages,  though  they  were  altered  in  kind.  His  slight  active 
figure  had  grown  spare,  his  eyes  looked  yet  larger  and  more 
speaking  under  his  broad  brow,  while  his  long  hair  had  become 
white  as  snow. 

In  1836,  when  he  was  in  his  fifty-ninth  year,  Congress  invited 
him  to  fill  one  of  the  panels  in  the  Rotunda  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington,  but  he  declined  the  commission.  An  exhibition  of 
his  pictures  in  Boston,  to  the  number  of  forty-two  was  made  three 
years  later. 

Allston's  mind  had  been  set  on  a  long-projected,  long-worked- 
at  picture.  During  his  second  residence  in  London  he  had  begun 
a  great  picture  of  "  Belshazzar's  Feast."  But  many  circumstances 
—among  them  delicate  health  and  pecuniary  embarrassments,  which 
caused  at  one  time  the  arrest  of  the  unfinished  picture — delayed 
its  progress.  For  nearly  forty  years  Allston  worked  at  intervals 
on  this  picture.  In  1842  he  had  painted  at  it  steadily  for  a  week, 
when  on  the  Saturday  night,  after  an  evening's  thoughtful  pleasant 
intercourse  with  his  family,  the  painter  suddenly  but  gently  expired 
from  an  attack  of  heart  complaint,  to  which  he  was  liable.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  in  his  sixty-fourth  year.  He  was 
buried  by  torch-light  at  Cambridge. 

Twenty  plates,  the  largest  twenty  inches  by  thirty,  of  outlines 
by  Allston,  were  published  a  few  years  ago;  they  were  selected 
from  compositions  hastily  sketched  in  chalk  with  outlines  in  amber. 

The  United  States  in  its  infancy  as  a  republic  offered  little 
temptation  to  her  own  sons— either  as  a  field  for  study  or  as 
appreciative  of  any  branch  of  the  art,  except  portrait  painting; 
and  most  of  her  sons  had  to  proceed  to  Italy  or  France,  and  on 
returning  to  the  land  of  their  nativity  by  the  way  of  England 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


were  generally  induced  to  stay  in  London  where  they  felt  and 
received  more  encouragement  than  could  be  expected  from  a  young 
Republic  with  no  accumulated  wealth,  and  hard  work  with  the 


soil.  Although  not  born  in  America,  yet  of  American  parentage, 
his  father  and  mother  having  been  born  in  Maryland,  whilst  he 
was  born  in  London,  whither  his  parents  had  taken  a  voyage  en 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  41 

business.  We  find  in  the  English  department  one  of  Charles  Robert 
Leslie's  pictures,  "May-day  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,"  of 
which  we  give  an  engraving  on  page  24.  This  is  the  only  specimen, 
we  think,  of  Leslie  in  the  Exhibition,  and  pity  that  is  so;  for 
irrespective  of  the  tastes  of  art  lovers,  there  are  very  many  of  our 
veteran  army  officers  who  would  have  liked  to  see  more  work  in 
the  higher  branch  of  art  by  their  old  drawing-master  at  West 
Point.  Leslie  lived  a  somewhat  eventful  career;  his  father  was 
engaged  as  a  painter  and  clockmaker  in  Philadelphia,  but  before 
Charles  was  born,  he  went  en  famille  on  a  voyage  to  England. 

On  the  occasion  of  their  visit,  which  was  of  several  years' 
duration,  Charles  Leslie  was  born.  The  watchmaker  and  his  family 
returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  after  a  voyage  of  more  than  seven 
months,  he  found  that  his  affairs  had  fallen  into  great  disorder,  a 
discovery  of  which  caused  his  death,  leaving  Leslie,  not  ten  years 
of  age,  the  eldest  of  a  young  family  under  the  charge  of  a  widowed 
mother.  The  widow  opened  a  boarding-house  for  the  support  of 
her  family,  while  her  eldest  daughter  went  out  as  a  drawing 
teacher.  The  professors  of  the  college  at  Philadelphia  admitted 
the  young  Leslie  lads  to  the  college  classes  at  reduced  fees,  and 
uncles  and  aunts,  who  had  comfortable  and  pleasant  farmers  and 
millers  homesteads  on  the  Brandywine,  welcomed  the  boys  with 
homely  kindness,  for  the  summer  holidays. 

At  fourteen  years  of  age  Charles  Leslie  was  bent  on  being  a 
painter,  but  by  the  anxious  care  of  his  mother  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  firm  of  booksellers  and  publishers,  to  the  head  of  which  his 
apprentice's  ineradicable  propensity  for  art  at  first  gave  little  satis- 
faction. Eventually,  however,  the  man  of  business  afforded  liberal 
assistance  to  his  subordinate. 

The  occasion  of  the  visit  of  Cooke  the  tragedian  to  Philadelphia, 
when  the  bookseller's  apprentice  was  able  to  make  a  telling  sketch 
of  the  actor,  caused  the  kindly  conversion  of  the  master  to  the 
lad's  art-interest.  By  the  aid  of  the  business  men  who  attended 
the  Exchange  Office  House,  Leslie  was  enabled  to  proceed  to 
Europe  to  prosecute  his  studies.  He  went  to  England  in  1811, 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


when  he  was  seventeen   years  of  age,  bringing,  of  course,  letters 
of  introduction  to  his  countryman,  West. 

Leslie  and  another  American  lad,  two  years  older,  took  lodgings 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  iS76."\ 


THE  LITTLE  SAMARITAN. 

y.  S.  Hartley,  Sculptor. 


[The  Art  Gallery. 


together,  and  started,  by  devoting  "their  days  to  painting,  and 
their  evenings  to  the  Royal  Academy,"  to  which  Leslie  was 
admitted  a  student  in  1813,  when  he  was  in  his  twentieth  year. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  43 

As  a  farther  advantage  the  studios  of  West  and  of  Allston,  then 
in  London,  were  opened  to  Leslie.  He  was  permitted  to  see  his 
seniors'  work  in  progress,  and  was  encouraged  and  helped  by  their 
advice  and  friendship,  for  the  lonely  lad  had  brought  with  him  the 
cheerful,  amiable  temper,  as  well  as.  the  enthusiasm  for  his  pro- 
fession, which  had  so  speedily  broken  down  opposition,  and  procured 
him  influential  friends  beyond  the  Atlantic.  He  studied  the  Townley 
Marbles  in  the  British  Museum,  and  rose  at  six  in  the  morning 
to  accompany  his  companion  to  Burlington  House,  to  join  him  in 
the  study  of  the  Elgin  Marbles  then  lodged  there.  For  Leslie 
put  little  value  on  any  outside  help  which  was  not  supplemented 
by  personal  diligence;  indeed,  he  went  so  far  as  to  deprecate  all 
education  save  self-education,  and  was  wont  to  speak  of  the  "wise 
neglect"  of  Fuseli  which  made  such  men  as  Wilkie,  Mulready, 
Etty,  Landseer,  and  Haydon,  and  did  not  render  them  "all  alike 
by  teaching." 

In  order  to  gain  an  immediate  livelihood,  Leslie  practiced  portrait 
painting;  he  was  also  induced,  probably  by  the  example  of  West, 
to  try  high  art,  in  "Saul  and  the  Witch  of  Endor;"  but  he  very 
soon,  almost  as  soon  as  Wilkie,  found  his  proper  vocation  in  genre 
painting.  In  1817,  when  Leslie  was  twenty -three  years  of  age,  he 
visited  Paris,  Brussels,  and  Antwerp,  studying  the  old  masters. 
This  was  one  of  Leslie's  few  visits  to  the  continent. 

As  early  as  1819,  when  Leslie  was  no  more  than  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  he  painted  for  an  American  merchant,  and  exhibited 
in  the  Academy,  his  "Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  going  to  Church," 
which  was  at  once  received  with  great  approbation — making  his 
way  clear.  This  was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  pictures  peculiarly 
acceptable  to  the  public,  because  they  were  spirited  and  lovely 
illustrations  of  popular  subjects,  and  both  illustrations  and  subjects, 
while  they  were  certainly  not  below,  were,  with  equal  certainty,  not 
far  above,  the  general  intelligence  of  a  fairly  cultivated  public.  A 
list  of  Leslie's  best-known  subjects  will  show  my  meaning :  "  May-day 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth;"  "Sancho  Panza  and  the  Duchess;" 
"  Lady  Jane  Grey  prevailed  on  to  accept  the  Crown,"  (in  this  instance 


44 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


their  is  a  slight  departure  from  the  usual  role,  for  you  will  observe 
that  Leslie's  subjects,  while  moderately  intellectual,  are  for  the  most 


1776. 

By  G.  IV.  Maynard. 


4rt  Gallery. 


part  cheerful  as  his  own  temper,  and  not  even  darkened  by  the 
shadow  of  a  tragedy);  "Dinner  at  Page's  House;"  "Uncle  Toby  and 
the  Widow;"  a  steel  engraving  of  this  latter  is  exhibited  by  the 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  45 

engraver.  Leslie's  intimacy  with  Washington  Irving,  whose  "  Sketch 
Book"  Leslie  illustrated,  is  judged,  probably  with  perfect  correctness, 
to  have'  been  the  influence  which  directed  the  painter  to  the  pages  of 
Addison — greatly  admired  by  Washington  Irving — for  inspiration, 
since  Leslie  drew  his  inspiration  mainly  from  books.  And  such 
characters  as  he  painted  from  "the  Spectator,"  "Don  Quixote," 
and  "the  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,"  &c.,  have  for  the  most  part 
an  acceptation  which  is  widely  acknowledged. 

Leslie  corresponded  regularly  with  his  American  relations,  and 
for  a  time  looked  forward  to  his  return  to  America,  but  his  art 
friends  and  his  good  prospects  in  England  proved  too  strong  for 
this  intention.  In  1821,  when  he  was  twenty-seven  years  of  age, 
Leslie  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Academy,  and  five  years 
later  he  became  a  full  member.  The  accident  of  his  taking  the 
place  of  another  painter  summoned  hurriedly  to  sketch  the  features 
of  a  dying  child  introduced  Leslie  to  the  pictorial  glories  of  Pet- 
worth,  and  the  friendly  patronage  of  Lord  Egremont,  for  whom  he 
painted  "Sancho  Panza  in  the  apartment  of  the  Duchess,"  one  of 
the  most  admired  of  Leslie's  pictures,  and  one  which  secured  his 
wordly  success,  enabling  him  to  make  in  1824,  at  thirty  years  of 
age,  a  happy  marriage  with  a  young  English  beauty,  belonging 
to  a  bevy  of  six  sisters,  named  Stone,  whose  personal  charms  pro- 
voked their  grotesque  classification  by  some  would-be  wit  of  their 
circle,  as  "the  six  precious  Stones." 

But  though  Leslie  was  settled  in  England  and  married  to  an 
English  wife,  he  did  not  lose  his  American  sympathies.  He  was 
given  throughout  his  life  to  fast  friendships,  which  even  influenced 
his  art,  and  his  greatest  friends  for  years  were  his  countrymen — 
the  pleasant,  witty  author,  Washington  Irving,  and  the  clever,  vain, 
hare-brained  painter,  Newton,  to  whose  ability  in  coloring  Leslie's 
inferiority  in  that  respect  owed  improvement.  The  three  young 
Americans  seem  to  have  been  inseparable,  visiting  together  in  a 
circle  of  Americans  resident  in  that  country,  frequenting  the  two 
studios,  running  off  in  a  trio  on  light-hearted  expeditions,  dining 
many  a  time  frugally,  but  merrily,  at  the  York  Chop  House,  in 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Wardour   Street,  where    generations   of   young    painters    have,  in 
succession,  been  served. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  47 

But  Leslie  did  not  need  to  go  beyond  his  own  home  for  peace 
and  relaxation.  He  was  a  man  of  domestic  tastes  and  warm 
affections,  and  in  his  wife,  with  their  children,  to  whom  he  was 
tenderly  attached,  rising  round  him,  he  found  the  sweetest  solace 
after  work,  as  well  as  one  of  the  best  incentives  to  honorable 
ambition.  But  the  interests  of  these  children,  and  the  strength  of 
old  ties,  broke  up  his  English  home  for  a  time,  and  tempted 
Leslie  to  revive  his  old  project  of  returning  to  America. 

In  1833,  when  the  painter  was  nearly  forty  years  of  age,  he 
accepted  the  appointment  offered  to  him  by  the  American  Govern- 
ment of  Professor  of  Drawing  to  the  Military  Academy  of  West 
Point,  on  the  Hudson,  and  made  the  somewhat  rash  venture  of 
resigning  his  known  and  fair  opportunities  in  England,  for  a  return 
to  long  left  interests  and  new  and  untried  resources.  The  experi- 
ment did  not  prove  successful.  His  duties  were  irksome,  his  Eng- 
lish wife  did  not  like  America,  the  very  climate  seemed  to  the 
naturalized  Englishman  to  have  undergone  a  change  from  the  days 
of  his.  hardy  boyhood,  and  within  the  short  space  of  six  months 
Leslie  returned  with  his  family  to  his  adopted  country.  The  brief 
leave-taking  and  coming  back,  form  two  of  the  principal  events  in 
Leslie's  happy  and  prosperous  career.  Short  as  the  interval  was 
during  which  they  occurred,  it  included  the  catastrophe  of  the 
declared  insanity  of  poor  Newton  the  painter.  In  the  room  of 
the  regard  whose  object  had  passed  beyond  its  reach,  Leslie 
developed  a  faithful  friendship — not  the  less  affectionate  on  account 
of  the  ruggedness  of  the  friend — for  Constable  the  painter,  who  in 
his  turn  exerted  a  marked  effect  on  the  sympathetic  mind  of 
Leslie,  and  thenceforth  Constable's  cool  greys  and  vivid  greens 
became  prominent  where  Newton's  brilliant  rainbow  hues  had 
prevailed  in  the  chosen  interpreter  of  Cervantes,  Sterne  and  Shake- 
speare, in  their  lighter  scenes.  In  1838,  Leslie  painted  for  Queen 
Victoria  her  "Coronation,"  in  which  the  maiden  queen,  and  the 
fair  young  members  of  the  English  aristocracy  figure  very  grace- 
fully. In  1841,  he  executed  a  similar  commission,  with  the  "Christ- 
ening of  the  Princess  Royal"  for  his  subject. 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  49 

Leslie  was  elected  Professor  of  Painting  to  the  Royal  Academy 
in  1848,  and  held  the  appointment  till  failing  health  forced  him 
to  resign  it  in  1851.  Leslie's  much-loved  children,  both  while 
young  and  after  they  had  grown  to  manhood  and  womanhood, 
are  said  to  have  supplied  him  with  many  a  hint  for  childish 
playfulness,  girlish  shyness,  and  the  elastic  vigor  of  young  man- 
hood. The  death  of  one  of  these  children,  a  cherished  daughter 
and  young  bride,  who  faded  suddenly  and  died  in  her  early  prime, 
is  said  to  have  proved  at  last  Leslie's  death-blow.  She  died  in 
March,  1859.  Her  father,  after  struggling  in  vain  with  his  de- 
pression, sank  of  a  complaint,  from  which  no  fatal  result  had  at 
first  been  apprehended,  and  died  in  his  house  in  St.'  John's  Wood, 
London,  in  the  May  of  the  same  year,  1859,  aged  sixty-four  years. 
On  a  slip  of  paper  attached  to  his  will  Leslie  had  written,  "  I  trust 
I  may  die  as  I  now  am,  in  the  entire  belief  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, as  I  understand  it  from  the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
that  is,  as  a  direct  revelation  of  the  will  and  goodness  of  God 
towards  the  world  by  Jesus  Christ,  the  Saviour  and  Judge  of  the 
world."  Leslie  has  left  a  successor  to  his  name  and  art,  whose 
nymph-like  maidens  are  a  farther  development  of  the  love  of  the 
beautiful. 

Leslie's  merits  as  a  painter  seem  to  belong  largely  to  the 
well-balanced,  sunny,  humorous  nature  of  the  man.  His  defective 
art  education  was  never  altogether  supplemented;  he  owed  little 
or  nothing  to  foreign  study;  and  he  seemed  to  draw  well  rather 
from  his  innate  sense  of  harmony,  grace  and  beauty,  than  from 
accurate  knowledge.  He  was  deficient  as  a  colorist.  He  used 
simple  modes  and  mediums  in  mixing  his  colors;  and  there  was 
one  advantage  in  the  medium  (which  was  in  the  end  pure  linseed 
oil,)  that  it  has 'kept  his  pictures  in  good  preservation.  He  did 
not  paint  landscape  well.  His  sphere,  or  else  the  taste  of  the 
public  where  he  was  concerned,  was  so  limited,  that  even  when 
he  diverged  from  Sterne  to  Swift,  or  ventured  on  such  an  inno- 
vation as  painting  "Lady  Jane  Grey  prevailed  on  to  accept  the 
Crown,"  or  "Columbus  and  the  Egg,"  his  judges  held  that  he 


5° 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


had  overstepped   his   powers,  and   that   there  was  a  falling  off  in 
his  attainment.     Yet  few  modern  painters  have  given  greater  de- 


rht  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}     KEENE  VALLEY,  ADIRONDACKS. 

By  Thomas  Hart. 


[  The  Art  Gallery. 


light  than  Leslie  gave.     He  was  so  good  within  his  range.     His 
sense  of  beauty  was  very  true,  and  very  pure  and  delicate  as  well 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  51 

as  true.  His  appreciation  of  humor  must  have  been  equally  keen, 
while  his  good  sense  and  good  taste  prevented  him  from  being 
guilty  of  the  least  exaggeration  or  burlesque  in  his  representations  of 
what  was  comedy  and  not  farce.  He  could  do  what  seems  a  rare 
endowment  in  modern  days,  draw  a  nice  line  between  comedy  and  farce. 

A  cotemporary  art-critic  says  of  "Sancho  Panza  and  the 
Duchess": — "How  lovely  is  the  Duchess;  how  perfectly  at  her 
ease,  how  truly  one  of  Nature's  gentlewomen,  as  she  sits  listening 
to  Sancho's  tale.  What  a  round,  full  form!  The  light  of  a  happy 
smile  in  her  eyes;  the  amused  satire  of  her  dimpling  mouth, 
pleased  at  the  simplicity  of  the  peasant  squire,  who  takes  her  into 
his  confidence,  and  binds  her  to  secrecy  as  to  his  master's 
escapades,  putting  his  finger  to  his  nose  as  he  tells  his  tale. 
Contrasted  with  the  rare  beauty  of  the  lady,  and  serving  as  its 
foil,  is  the  stately  frigid  duenna,  drawn  up  to  her  full  height,  her 
hands  crossed  in  front,  her  keen,  observant  eye  seeing  all  that  is 
going  on,  but  no  smile  is  ever  likely  to  twinkle  there,  nor  to  part 
her  thin,  dry  lips.  What  a  contrast  to  the  laughing  black  damsel 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  picture,  who  grins  and  shows  a  mouth- 
ful of  teeth,  at  the  unconscious  assurance  of  the  garlic-loving 
Sancho  in  relating  his  adventures  to  her  noble  mistress."  A  steel 
plate  engraving  of  this  picture  is  exhibited. 

Another  American  artist,  but  naturalized,  is  Emmanuel  Leutze, 
whose  picture  of  "Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware"  is  world- 
known,  was  born  in  1816,  at  Emingen,  near  Reuthingen,  in 
Wurtemburg.  His  father  was  a  German  mechanic,  who  was 
induced  by  political  discontent  to  quit  Europe  and  settle  in  Phila- 
delphia. Young  Leutze  sketched  from  his  boyhood.  In  1841, 
when  he  was  twenty-five  years  of  age,  he  got  enough  orders  for  his 
work  to  enable  him  to  visit  Europe.  Naturally  as  a  German,  he 
turned  his  steps — not  to  the  special  American  art-bourne,  Rome,  but 
to  Dusseldorf,  where  he  entered  the  Academy.  He  soon  won  a  name 
in  historical  painting,  his  picture  of  "  Columbus  before  the  Council  of 
Salamanca,"  being  bought  by  the  Art  Union  of  Dusseldorf,  and 
commissions  followed  him  from  his  adopted  country. 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  2876. 


From  Germany  Leutze  proceeded  to  Italy,  returning  to  Germany 
and  marrying  there  the  daughter  of  a  German  officer,  but  still 
retaining  the  strong  sympathy  of  Americans  by  painting,  while 
resident  in  Germany,  a  series  of  pictures  with  subjects  dear  to 


"T*e  Great  Exhibition, 


THE  REPROOF. 

By  Emily  Sartain. 


American  hearts— such  as  "News  from  Lexington,"  and  "Mrs 
Schuyler  Firing  the  Wheat  Fields."  In  1859,  when  Leutze  was 
forty-three  years  of  age,  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  while 
he  left  his  family  for  a  time  in  Germany.  In  1863  he  went  to 
Dusseldorf  to  fetch  his  family,  having  found  a  great  change  in 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  53 

the  prospects  of  American  art,  so  that  it  now  offered  a  fair  field 
for  an  historical  painter. 

Leutze's  pictures  are  full  of  action,  and  he  has  sought  for 
dramatic  inspiration  in  American,  Spanish,  French,  German,  and 
Scotch  history.  Among  his  best  known  pictures  are  his  "Landing 
of  the  Northmen,"  his  various  "  Columbuses,"  his  "John  Knox  and 
Mary  Stewart,"  and  his  "Cromwell  and  his  Daughters."  Leutze 
painted  for  the  panel  of  the  south-western  staircase  in  the  new 
wing  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington — "Western  Emigration."  A 
great  emigrant  party,  travel-stained  and  weary,  arrived  on  the 
rolling  prairies,  of  which  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  the  back-bone, 
with  a  border  enriched  by  allegory  and  emblem,  in  true  German 
style.  The  picture  is  painted  by  the  stereo-chromatic  or  water- 
glass  process,  that  seems  to  be  taking  the  place  of  the  old  fresco 
painting.  For  the  "Columbus  in  Chains,"  which  was  sent  to  the 
great  Brussels  Exhibition,  Leutze  received  from  the  king  of  the 
Belgians  the  medal  a  vermeil,  as  a  recompense  nationale. 

The  marble  statue  of  Washington  on  the  pedestal  opposite 
Judges'  Hall,  was  sculptured  by  Gianfranchi  after  the  figure  in 
Leutze's  picture  of  "Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware." 

We  see  few  other  specimens  of  the  older  American  school  of 
painters.  Page,  of  Albany,  the  "American  Titian,"  is  represented 
not  in  this  gathering  of  the  land  of  his  birth;  and  no  possessor 
of  any  of  the  masterpieces  of  sculpture  by  Hiram  Powers  has 
chosen  to  do  honor  to  the  dead  artist,  by  exhibiting  some  of  his 
marvellous  genius;  this  might  have  been  done,  for  we  observe 
Mr.  Naylor  of  England  has  risked  a  replica  of  Venus,  by  another 
dead  artist,  John  Gibson.  Was  there  no  man  so  rich  as  to  do 
honor  to  Hiram  Powers? 

A  contemporary  of  Allston's,  and  a  connecting  link  between 
deceased  and  living  American  artists,  is  Daniel  Huntington,  who 
exhibits  several  of  the  finest  pictures  in  the  American  department. 
He  was  born  in  1816,  in  New  York. 

From  the  four  or  five  pictures  which  he  exhibits,  we  engrave 
on  page  64,  his  "Sowing  the  Word,"  a  quiet  and  thoughtful  picture, 


54 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


' The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.  '}  RUTH. 

R.  Rogers,  Sculpt o 


[The  Art  Gallery. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  55 

subdued  in  its  tone — almost  characteristic  of  the  painter,  an  unas- 
suming gentleman,  with  a  considerable  appreciation  of  humor. 
His  aim  is  sober  and  manly,  rejecting  alike  violent  efforts  at 
dramatic  effect  and  minute  drudgery  of  elaboration. 

The  walls  of  the  corridor  leading  to  the  American  and  English 
departments  are  hung  with  the  work  of  American  artists.  An 
eminent  family  of  painters  are  the  Morans.  An  attractive  painting 
by  Mr.  Edward  Moran,  of  New  York,  copied  in  the  large  engrav- 
ing which  we  present  on  page  28,  shows  that  superb  and  starry 
spectacle  of  the  land-lights  of  America,  which  first  causes  the 
immigrant's  eye  to  dance  with  hope  and  his  heart  to  swell  with 
ambition  as  he  comes  to  conquer  his  opportunity  among  the  free. 
Here  is  the  city  spread  between  the  mouths  of  the  Hudson  and 
East  rivers,  here  is  the  dull  and  ponderous  fortification  on  Governor's 
Island,  all  pierced  and  pricked  with  twinkling  lights  like  a  fairy 
scene  in  the  theatre.  How  many  sturdy  men  have  looked  upon  the 
inspiration  of  these  lights  with  irrepressible  tears !  For  how  many 
has  the  pause  at  Sandy  Hqok,  the  debarkation  at  Castle  Garden, 
meant  success,  opportunity,  renown  even,  in  contrast  with  the 
certain  continuance  of  degradation  in  that  darker  and  older  world ! 
The  able  and  successful  men  we  can  reckon  around  us,  the  public 
men  who  have  risen  to  command,  have  in  a  surprising  number  of 
instances  been  taken  from  the  ranks  of  those  strong,  muscular, 
serious,  plain  men  whom  we  see  idling  around  the  walks  of  Castle 
Garden  in  the  first  day  of  their  unaccustomed  liberty,  waiting  to 
"take  occasion  by  the  hand."  Such  are  the  seed  of  the  new  earth. 
To-day  they  are  of  the  million — to-morrow  of  the  millionaires. 
To-day  they  are  nobodies,  rocked  over  the  flashing  waves  of  the 
Bay  into  the  embrace  of  that  twinkling  crescent  of  lights:  soon 
they  are  individuals,  entities,  sovereigns,  with  every  chance  to  con- 
quer the  esteem  of  their  kind  by  power,  wealth,  or  intellect.  This 
is  the  sort  of  legend  that  seems  to  be  whispering  forth  out  of  the 
rippled  waves  and  rolling  moon  of  Mr.  Moran's  picture,  a  fine 
augury  to  greet  the  subjects  of  European  monarchs  as  they  face 
it.  The  painter,  a  man  of  self-made  progress  in  art,  belongs  to  a 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  57 

family  of  brothers  who  are  all  curious  instances  of  inborn  talent 
and  perseverance  conquering  a  success  among  the  American  people, 
so  hospitable  to  ideas.  Mr.  Edward  Moran  and  his  brother  Thomas 
have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  an  Americo-British  art-education: 
they  have  profited  almost  as  much  by  the  English  artist  Turner 
as  by  the  American  artist  Hamilton.  Thomas  Moran — about 
equally  known  by  his  fine  "Yellowstone"  scene  in  the  Capitol  at 
Washington,  as  by  the  remarkable  book-illustrations  which  he 
scatters  from  his  home  at  Newark  to  the  best  magazines  and  art- 
publications  of  the  land — can  be  judged  in  the  Exhibition  by  five 
landscapes  in  widely-separated  styles.  The  "Dream  of  the  Orient" 
plainly  shows  his  extraordinary  admiration  for  Turner,  of  whose 
works  he  has  made  so  many  copies  of  the  rarest  fidelity;  while 
"The  Mountain  of  the  Holy  Cross"  is  more  in  the  style  of  his 
monumental  works  at  the  Capitol. 

Another  brother,  Peter  Moran,  is  an  accomplished  practitioner 
in  the  more  difficult  line  of  cattle  and  figure  painting;  while  a 
younger  one,  John,  is  one  of  the  first  topographical  photographers 
in  the  country.  By  Peter  Moran,  the  cattle-painter  aforesaid,  we 
engrave  on  page  30  the  spirited  subject,  "The  Return  of  the  Herd." 
In  a  pleasant  rolling  country  near  the  Brandywine  or  the  Wissa- 
hickon  the  herdsman  and  his  dog  are  driving  home  the  cows  after 
the  soft  afternoon  storm  which  makes  the  herbage  so  tempting  for 
a  lingering  bite.  Mr.  P.  Moran's  cattle  are  always  obviously  studied 
from  nature.  In  the  present  picture,  the  black  head  of  the  central 
animal,  relieved  against  the  brightest  sky  where  the  storm  breaks 
away,  makes  fine  pictorial  effect  for  the  artist;  and  the  pretty  play 
of  the  near  cow  and  calf  is  true  to  life.  The  four  brothers  we 
have  named  live  in  different  cities,  but  their  starting-point  was 
Philadelphia,  of  whose  academic  art-training  they  .are  creditable 
alumni. 

Prominent  in  the  centre  of  the  principal  American  Gallery  there 
stands  a  lovely  sculpture — "Aurora" — by  Joseph  A.  Bailly.  Our 
readers  have  but  to  glance  at  the  illustration  on  page  32,  to  see 
that  we  shall  not  overestimate  its .  beauties.  Mr.  Bailly  exhibits, 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


besides  his  "Aurora"  figure,  which  rises  so  white  and  mist-like,  a 
portrait  work  of  ponderous  importance,  the  likeness  of  President 
Blanco,  of  Venezuela,  recently  set  up  in  bronze  at  Caracas.  Mr. 
Bailly,  as  a  young  Paris  revolutionist  exiled  by  the  events  of  1848, 
went  over  to  England,  where  he  wrought  for  awhile  in  the  studio 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


HIDE. 

.  A.  Rogers,  Sculptor. 


[7'he  Art  Gallery. 


of  his  namesake,  Edward  Hodges  Bailly,  author  of  "  Eve  at  the 
Fountain."  Coming  to  this  country,  he  attracted  immediate  at- 
tention by  the  skill  with  which  he  could  carve  and  "undercut"  the 
most  intricate  designs,  and  gradually  rose  to  success  as  a  sculptor 
of  portrait  and  classical  subjects.  The  technical  ability  of  this 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  59 

prolific  artist  is  especially  shown  in  all  that  relates  to  the  mechani- 
cal portion  of  his  art.  The  "Aurora/'  is  a  piece  of  magic;  the 
equilibrium  of  the  figure,  whose  feet  are  folded  far  above  the 
ground,  and  who  rises  just  over  the  trailing  folds  of  a  vail  which 
merely  sweeps  the  earth,  is  a  powerful  stimulant  of  our  wonder. 
To  have  made  such  a  device  in  bronze  would  be  easy;  but  to  carve 
it  out  of  marble,  when  a  false  blow  of  the  hammer  would  lay  the 
beautiful  image  low  at  once,  seems  more  than  human  skill  could 
accomplish.  Then  the  transporting  of  the  critically-balanced  figure 
in  safety  was  a  remarkable  event,  only  to  be  brought  about  by  a 
mechanical  genius  as  conspicuous  as  the  artistic.  But  Mr.  Bailly 
has  passed  through  the  apprenticeship  of  every  art  that  mechanics 
includes;  and  his  marble  vails  and  flowers  and  figure,  light  and 
perfect  as  a  blossom  on  the  stem,  have  been  successfully  removed 
— half  standing,  half  overhanging — from  the  studio  to  the  destined 
position  in  the  far-away  Park  edifice.  The  image  is  like  a  crystal- 
lized mist  from  daybreak:  "Aurora,"  only  half  disengaged  from 
the  Night,  whose  vail  sweeps  lingeringly  from  her  forehead  to  the 
ground,  holds  and  scatters  upon  the  earth  those  blossoms  whose 
petals  are  opened  by  the  winds  of  morning,  and  whose  blushes  are 
copied  from  the  blushes  of  the  dawn.  Such  an  evanescent  idea 
ought  to  be  sculptured  in  mist;  but  Mr.  Bailly  is  able  to  give  a 
mist-like  tenuity  to  marble. 

Another  Philadelphia  sculptor,  a  lady,  Miss  Blanche  Nevin,  who 
finished  her  "  Maud  Muller,"  in  the  atelier  of  Mr.  Bailly,  exhibits 
in  the  Fine  art  court  of  the  Woman's  Pavilion,  her  "Cinderella," 
which  we  engrave  on  page  34.  At  the  Academy  of  Venice,  and 
under  the  eye  of  resident  Venetian  sculptors,  Miss  Nevin  received 
her  best  technical  education.  This  artist  is  a  sister  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Nevin,  whose  exertions  in  building  a  handsome  church  for  Ameri- 
can Protestants  in  the  very  heart  of  Rome  were  so  creditable,  and 
so  quickly  successful  upon  the  triumph  of  the  present  government 
over  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope.  The  lady  is  still  quite 
young,  but  several  of  her  figures  in  marble  have  been  successful, 
as  witness  her  "  Maud  Muller,"  and  a  subject  owned  by  Mrs.  Ste- 


6o 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


phens,  the  society  queen.  "Cinderella"  sits  with  an  air  of  dis- 
couragement among  the  ashes,  in  pose  as  if  the  Dying  Gladiator 
had  shrunk  back  into  infancy  and  femininity.  Dreams  of  the 
splendors  and  delights  into  which  her  luckier  sisters  have  been 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


SEEK. 

By  y.  A.  Rogers,  Sculptor, 


[  The  Art  Gallery. 


admitted  occupy  her  little  head,  while  her  own  future  seems  as 
dry  and  cheerless  as  the  faded  embers.  Cheer  up,  small  Mar- 
chioness! In  a  moment  the  fairy  godmother  will  appear,  and  you 
will  escape  from  your  marble  and  be  a  belle,  and  your  tiny  Parian 
foot  shall  be  shod  in  glass,  and  the  pumpkin  shall  roll  with  you, 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  61 

and  the  rats  shall  gallop  with  you,  and  the  Prince  shall  kiss  your 
little  mouth  into  warmth  and  color. 

It  is  known  that  Boston  has  a  Millet.  Of  course.  France  has 
a  Millet — or  had — the  painter  of  peasant-groups,  so  original,  so 
racy  of  the  soil,  so  grimy,  so  similar  to  a  chapter  of  Thoreau. 
England,  too,  has  a  Millais,  pronounced  just  like  the  French,  and 
equally  the  favorite  of  a  certain  inmost  circle  of  the  elect.  These 
postulates  being  given,  it  was  obvious  that  Boston  must  in  the 
course  of  time,  and  that  as  soon  as  possible,  have  a  Millet  too. 
She  has  got  one  now,  and  nothing  remains  to  complete  her  am- 
bition. 

Young  Millet  is  a  growing  sapling,  as  yet  in  the  developing 
stage,  but,  without  joking,  a  young  man  of  very  decided  promise. 
He  sent  to  the  National  Academy  Exhibition  of  1876,  a  portrait 
of  a  lad,  very  frank,  boyish,  direct,  and  painted  with  engaging 
simplicity  and  robustness.  We  very  decidedly  like  his  gondellied 
in  colors,  entitled  "In  the  Bay  of  Naples,"  and  copied  by  us  on 
page  36  from  the  original  in  the  Centennial  show.  Who  that  has 
ever  taken  that  primitive,  antique  sail  from  Naples  to  Capri  in  the 
old  market-boat,  would  not  warm  to  the  picture  of  it,  especially 
when  executed  with  such  freshness  and  wit?  It  is  like  a  revived 
missing  chapter  from  Pliny  the  Naturalist;  behind  our  backs  are 
the  phenomena  of  that  great  volcano  which  cost  the  erudite  Roman 
his  life;  before  us  the  two-peaked  outline  of  Capri  lifting  from  the 
blue,  and  around  us  the  peasant-life  which  has  scarcely  changed 
since  the  days  of  the  ancients.  Four  of  the  mariners  in  this 
picture  wear  the  Phrygian  cap  that  Ulysses  wore.  They  roll  their 
arms  and  legs  into  the  softest  convolutions  of  the  dolce  far  niente. 
They  play  with  the  handsome  Anacapri  girl  on  the  seat  that  eternal 
game  of  dalliance  and  love  which  is  never  old.  The  bare-backed 
boys,  opening  and  shutting  their  fingers  like  flashes  of  tawny 
lightning,  play  the  immortal  game  of  Morra  which  the  Hebrew 
slaves  played  beneath  the  pyramids. 

So  drifting  and  floating,  and  letting  the  wind  take  care  of  the 
dirty  old  sail,  they  sit  with  their  feet  in  a  bed  of  fish,  and  execute 


62 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


that  delicious  Capri-transit— the  most  luxurious  bit  of  vagabondage, 


A  CHILD'S  GRIEF. 

R.  Percda,  Scttlftor, 


set  in  the  loveliest  scenery,  that  even  Italian  life  affords. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  63 

Two  Bostonians,  both  Champneys,  enlivened  the  American 
colony  in  France  eight  years  or  so  ago — Benjamin,  the  elder,  an 
old-fashioned  landscape-painter,  with  a  soul  and  heart  eternally 
young,  and  a  slim  youth,  J.  W.  Champney,  who  in  those  days 
lived  in  a  very  small  and  very  lofty  room  in  the  Rue  du  Dauphin, 
and  carried  up  his  own  milk  in  the  morning  for  a  home-made 
breakfast.  Those  days  of  student-liberty  and  independent  fortune- 
fighting  are  over  now,  and  as  "  Champ,"  the  young  art-adventurer 
is  famous.  His  illustrations  to  Mr.  King's  work  on  "The  Great 
South,"  and  his  charming  Centennial  American  sketches  in  a  French 
journal,  have  won  him  admirers  in  America,  England  and  France, 
and  procured  him  compliments  in  more  than  one  language.  He 
contributes  to  the  Exhibition,  among  other  things,  "Your  Good 
Health!",  which  we  engrave  on  page  38.  It  is  one  of  the  small, 
single-figure  subjects  which  Meissonier  brought  into  vogue.  A 
cordial  old  bachelor,  who  has  seen  life,  and  who  wears  the  full- 
bottom  wig  and  gaiters  of  the  last  century,  is  just  lifting  the  glass 
filled  from  the  tall  champagne-bottle  before  him;  a  smile  breaks 
on  his  mouth  as  the  bead  breaks  on  the  rim.  "Champ"  has 
caught  the  freshness,  the  urbanity,  the  hospitality  of  his  type,  "and 
that,"  as  Nym  says,  "is  the  humor  of  it." 

Another  Bostonian,  Mr.  W.  M.  Brackett,  in  a  series  one  of 
whose  subjects  we  engrave  on  page  40,  has  delineated  "The  Rise," 
"The  Leap,"  "The  Last  Struggle,"  and  1' Landed."  Here  is  the 
suggestion  of  country  streams,  hissing  into  foam  over  the  shingly 
rock,  and  curling  up  into  peaceful  sleep  among  the  boulders  of 
the  shore.  The  noble  captive,  his  silver  mail  availing  him  nothing 
in  this  unequal  warfare,  writhes  and  twists  his  flexible  body  into 
a  semicircle,  exposing  to  the  air  his  elegant  tail  and  his  panting 
gills,  already  half-drowned  in  the  long  race.  It  is  the  last  effort 
for  liberty;  shortly  will  come  the  usual  reward  of  unsuccessful 
heroes  in  a  lost  cause — the  martyr's  fire,  the  approval  meted  too 
late  to  benefit  the  recipient,  and  the  apotheosis— of  the  supper-table. 

In  the  southwest  pavilion  stands  a  marble  poem  by  J.  S.  Hartley, 
of  New  York.  We  have  here  a  pretty  maid  of  ten  years,  who, 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  65 

carrying  the  drink  of  the  harvesters  through  the  sunny  field,  has 
tempted  a  bird  to  taste  it,  as  she  stands  silent  and  curiously 
watchful,  with  the  cup  in  her  extended  hand.  Is  it  water  pure? 
Is  it  something  stronger,  such  as  harvesters  love  to  taste  behind 
the  hedge?  We  do  not  know.  The  bird,  shaking  its  wise,  saucy 
little  head  with  an  air  of  doubt  on  the  rim  of  the  cup,  shall  decide 
for  us.  This  however  seems  but  a  bijoux  in  comparison  with  the 
ponderous  "  Anftetam  Soldier,"  in  granite,  of  which  we  give  a  steel 
frontispiece.  Like  the  nation  he  defends,  this  colossus  is  in  the 
bloom  of  youth,  and  like  it  he  is  hard  and  firm  though  alert. 
What  art  has  succeded  in  making  this  monster  out  of  granite? 
He  is  twenty-one  feet  six  inches  in  height.  What  sempster,  work- 
ing with  needles  of  thrice-hardened  steel,  has  draped  him  in  those 
folds  of  adamant,  that  hang  ten  feet  or  farther  from  his  inflexible 
loins?  The  sculptors  of  ancient  Egypt,  who  had  their  colossi  in 
granite  also,  worked  for  years  with  their  bronze  points  and  their 
corundum-dust  to  acheive  their  enormus  figures,  while  the  makers 
of  this  titanic  image,  availing  themselves  of  the  appliances  of 
American  skill,  have  needed  but  a  few  months  to  change  the 
shapeless  mass  of  stone  into  an  idea.  Something  rocky,  rude  and 
large-grained  is  obvious  still  in  this  stalwart  American;  his  head, 
with  its  masculine  chin  and  moustache  of  barbaric  proportions,  is 
rather  like  the  Vatican  "  Dacian "  than  like  the  Vatican  "  Genius." 
But,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  artistic  delicacy  of  the  model, 
Mr.  Conrads'  "Soldier"  presents  the  image  of  a  sentinel  not  to  be 
trifled  with,  as  he  leans  with  both  hands  clasped  around  his  gun- 
barrel,  the  cape  of  his  overcoat  thrown  back  to  free  his  arm,  and 
the  sharp  bayonet  thrust  into  its  sheath  at  his  belt.  Rabelais' 
hero,  Pantagruel,  whose  opponents  were  giants  in  armor  of  granite, 
would  have  recoiled  before  our  colossus  of  Antietam,  because  his 
heart  is  of  granite  too. 

The  American  heroes  who  have  really  succeeded  in  conquering 
the  stubbornness  of  this  mossy  stone,  and  making  it  bend  before 
them  into  the  desired  shape  by  the  power  of  ingenious  machinery, 
are  the  New  England  Granite  Company,  of  Hartford.  Before 


66 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


their  wonderful  ingenuity  the  rock  seems  to  lose  its  obstinacy; 
and,  furnish  them  but  an  artistic  model,  they  will  translate  its 
delicacy  into  the  most  imperishable  stone. 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


HEBE. 

After  Canora. 


[The  Art  Gallery. 


What  Mr.  Conrads  gives  us  in  granite,  Mr.  George  W.  Maynard 
gives  us— page  44,  "  1776" — on  canvas.  It  is  the  same  inflexibility, 
the  same  courage,  the  same  mature  will  in  stripling  bodv ;  onUr 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  67 

in  Maynard's  revolutionary  hero .  these  qualities  are  aggressive, 
while  in  Conrads'  defender  of  the  Union  they  are  conservative. 
The  figure  in  Mr.  Maynard's  "1776"  is  one  of  the  "embattled 
farmers,"  a  homespun  patriot,  bearing  the  standard  that  represented 
our  Union  before  we  had  a  flag — the  pine-tree  banner  of  Massa- 
chusetts, used  as  a  device  in  the  first  battles  of  the  Revolution, 
before  the  stars  and  stripes  were  invented.  In  his  other  hand  he 
grasps  the  ancient  musket — perhaps  the  very 

"Old  queen's  arm,  that  Gran'ther  Young 
Fetched  back  from  Concord — busted." 

On  the  wall  behind  him  is  seen  a  placard,  with  fragments  of  the 
date,  '76,  and  of  the  words  "Union"  and  "Independence."  This 
manly  figure,  in  the  picturesque  "Continental"  uniform,  so  rich  in 
angles,  gables,  lappels,  and  revers,  who  crosses  his  gun-barrel  over 
the  standard  he  will  only  yield  with  his  life,  looks  as  sacred  as  a 
crusader.  In  his  face  of  grief  an.d  valor  we  see  the  rankling 
wrong,  the  pressure  of  fate,  that  were  the  birth-throes  of  our  nation. 
It  is  a  face  fit  for  a  philosopher,  transformed  by  events  into  that 
of  a  warrior. 

And  this  observation  leads  us  to  interject  the  question  whether  any 
country  ever  yet  begot  a  national  type  of  face  apparently  able  to  do 
so  much  thinking  and  philosophizing  as  the  American  when  at 
its  best.  The  problem  is  whether  the  world  yields  an  amount  of 
thinking  sufficient  to  equip  the  deep,  brain-worn  visages  we  see  in 
all  our  national  pictures,  or  in  real  life  in  the  business  streets  of 
our  cities.  There  is  nothing  else  like  them  in  the  world.  Com- 
pared with  the  American  soldier's  face,  as  defined  from  the  testi- 
mony of  all  our  artists  and  the  very  photographs  of  our  officers, 
the  faces  of  soldiers  over  the  rest  of  the  world  are  those  of 
undeveloped  intelligences ;  the  Greek  contestants  of  the  Parthenon 
frieze  are  but  large  babies;  the  English  soldiers  of  Hogarth's 
"  March  to  Finchley"  are  good-natured,  immature,  beef-eating  lads ; 
the  French  soldiers  of  Vernet  are  dried  out  of  all  individuality— 
a  tinder-box  and  a  spark — a  lean  cheek  and  a  glowing  eye — food 
for  powder,  and  then  nothingness.  But  our  ordinary  American 


68 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


phiz  has  a  look  of  capability,  of  knowingness,  and  when  handsome 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." \ 


PSYCHE. 

By  y.  L.  Mott 


\Tht  Art  Gallery, 


of  intellectual    majesty,  that   it  would   take   a   vast  deal  of  actual 
achievement  to  justify  us  in  wearing.     It  is  walking  about    under 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  69 

false  colors  to  adopt  such  faces    unless  we  are  really  the  philoso- 
phers, tacticians  and  diplomats  of  the  age! 

A  really  exalted  sentiment  of  rural  tranquillity  is  poured  over 
Mr.  Bellows's  scene  entitled  "Sunday  in  Devonshire,"  engraved 
on  page  26.  It  is  the  vibration  of  the  church-going  bell  expressed 
in  landscape-painting.  We  seem  to  see  and  breathe  a  different 
atmosphere  from  the  work-a-day  air  as  we  mingle  with  these 
smock-frocked  peasants  on  their  way  from  church,  appearing  to 
have  just  received  the  blessing  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley.  Mr. 
Bellows  is  a  young  American  painter  who  has  passed  much  time 
in  England,  and  whose  works,  both  in  oil  and  water-color,  take  an 
inspiration  from  English  art  rather  than  from  that  of  the  Continent 
The  spirit  of  English  landscape,  too,  whose  nutty  honest  flavor  he 
seizes  so  perfectly,  is  a  boon  he  has  secured  from  a  residence  in 
the  tight  little  island.  It  is  not  for  him  to  soar  into  Colorado 
scenery  or  wrestle  with  the  Yo  Semite.  The  stage  he  loves  is 
set  with  snug,  and  crisp  trees  and  happy  cottages ;  sometimes  he 
is  familiar,  and  gives  a  kitchen-garden  comedy  for  the  benefit  of 
Gaffer  and  Gammer ;  but  when  he  is  at  his  best,  as  in  the  present 
example,  the  limpid,  translucent  touches  of  his  pencil  transfer  the 
very  sentiment  of  uan  English  home,"  with  the  security,  the 
hereditary  calm,  the 

"Dewy  landscape,  dewy  trees, 
Softer  than  sleep;    all  things  in  order  stored, 
A  haunt  of  ancient  Peace." 

Marine  artists  like  Mr.  E.  Moran  or  Mr.  M.  De  Haas  charac- 
teristically find  their  pleasure  in  beating  about  New  York  Harbor. 
Day  after  day,  in  the  fine  summer  weather,  they  may  be  seen 
standing,  Columbus-like,  on  the  prow  of  some  vessel  (which  is 
more  likely  to  be  a  grimy  steam-tug  than  anything  handsomer), 
engaged  in  their  own  peculiar  kind  of  exploration.  Their  game 
is  worth  the  chase,  and  the  booty  they  collect  justifies  their  taste. 
Other  artists,  like  Mr.  Brown  in  the  picture  we  engrave  on  page 
56,  choose  the  freezing  winter-time,  and  the  frost-locked  mimic  sea 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


of  Central  Park.     He   has    given    us   a   careful    and  variously-dis- 

iffftiiitfiii 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  7876."} 


|  The  Art  Gallery. 


criminated  crowd,  mainly  engaged  in  the  noble   old   Scotch  sport 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  71 

of  "Curling."  The  compatriots  of  Burns,  among  the  hardest 
players  and  hardest  workers  of  the  age,  have  transported  the  game 
to  this  country,  where  it  attracts  every  winter  the  delighted  wonder 
of  the  ignorant  and  the  incapable.  As  the  plaid-wrapped  athletes 
send  the  heavy  balls  of  Aberdeen  granite  vigorously  across  the 
ice,  or  carefully  sweep  the  crystal  floor  to  a  state  of  frictionless 
purity  for  the  next  effort,  or  measure  the  distance  between  a 
couple  of  stones  with  noisy  and  angerless  vociferation,  they  are 
sure  to  have  an  admiring  crowd  around  them.  The  curious 
Yankee,  not  "native  and  indued  unto  that  element,"  pauses  to 
watch  the  missiles,  with  a  modest  conviction  that  he  could  im- 
prove them ;  the  little  school-girl,  sledding  with  her  brother,  glides 
slower  past  the  fascinating  sports  of  the  good-natured,  manly 
contestants.  It  is  a  crisp,  eager,  jolly  game,  imparting  to  the  tame 
picture  of  the  city  lake  a  spicy  flavor  of  wild  loch-sports  in  North 
Britain.  This  animated  scene,  crowded  with  small  faces  and  figures 
very  difficult  to  engrave,  is  one  of  the  most  elaborate  attempts 
of  Mr.  Brown,  whose  pencil,  though  loving  rustic  subjects,  more 
generally  seeks  the  softness  and  refinement  of  fair  child-faces,  and 
the  delights  of  lovers,  whose  very  whispers  it  essays  to  paint. 

We  must  pass  over  without  special  notice  the  paintings  by 
other  American  artists  which  we  engrave  on  pages  46,  48,  50,  52,  54, 
58,  60,  66,  68  and  70.  The  "Wheelwrights'  Shop"  by  Mr.  Billings  ; 
"Lake  George"  by  Mr.  Kensett;  "Keene  Valley"  by  Mr.  Hart; 
"The  Reproof"  by  Miss  Sartain,  daughter  of  Mr.  Sartain,  Super- 
intendent of  the  "Art  Gallery" — Miss  Sartain's  "Reproof"  obtained 
a  medal.  The  lovely  statue  of  "  Ruth"  by  Mr.  Randolph  Rogers, 
which  is  worthy  of  the  highest  award;  the  charming  statuettes  in 
plaster  of  "Hide"  and  "Seek"  by  Mr.  Jno.  Rogers;  Messrs.  Motts' 
reproductions  in  bronze  of  Canova's  "Hebe,"  and  "Psyche;"  and 
most  sparkling  of  all  Mr.  Forbes'  "Beware!"  Mr.  Forbes' picture 
was  in  the  Canadian  department,  where  we  found  a  number  of 
landscapes  and  a  most  creditable  display  of  water-color  studies. 

The  British  is  the  most  modern  of  the  great  European  schools 
of  painting,  and  in  its  latest  developments,  has  shown  itself  to  be 


7  2  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


inferior  to  none  in  variety 
of  power.  Remains  have 
been  found  which  prove  that 
British  artists  had  attained 
no  small  proficiency  as  early 
as  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
their  works  suffer  nothing 
when  compared  with  the 
Continental  productions  of 
the  same  period.  When 
Holbein  visited  England,  he 
found  small  demand  for 
works  of  high  art,  and 
took  to  portrait  painting.  A 
period  followed,  during  which 
it  seemed  as  if  art  had  sunk 
back  again  into  its  low  con- 
dition, but  the  time  was  fast 
approaching  when  what  is 
now  regarded  as  the  British 
School  should  come  into 
existence,  when  the  advent 
of  Hogarth,  Reynolds,  West 
and  Gainsborough  should 
give  to  British  Art  an  ex- 
istence distinct  and  separate 
from  other  schools,  and 
destined  to  grow  with  the 
growth  of  the  nation. 

The  link  which  connects 
the  modern  British  School 
with  the  past,  is  Sir  James 
Thornhill,  an  artist  whose 
admiration  and  respect  for 
his  calling  was  out  of  all 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  73 

proportion  to  his  scanty  amount  of  ability.  He  had  a  son, 
Sergeant  Painter  to  the  Navy,  but  otherwise  undistinguished. 
Sir  James's  daughter  Jane  became  the  wife  of  William  Hogarth. 

Within  the  ten  years,  between  his  thirty-eighth  and  forty-eighth 
years,  Hogarth  produced  his  different  series  of  moral  and  satirical 
pictures ;  but,  though  a  successful  painter,  he  was  not  without  the 
mortification  of  seeing  that  his  contemporaries  could  only  partially 
appreciate  his  great  genius.  His  series  of  six  scenes,  known  as 
"Marriage  a  la  Mode"  were  sold  by  auction  in  1750,  when  the 
painter  was  at  the  height  of  his  power,  in  his  forty-seventh  year, 
but  only  one  bidder  appeared,  and  the  whole  series  were  knocked 
down  to  him  at  a  hundred  and  ten  guineas,  while  the  frames  alone 
had  cost  the  painter  twenty-four  guineas. 

William  Hogarth  was  honest  and  frank,  blunt  yet  benevolent. 
His  portrait,  painted  by  himself,  is  well  known,  or  engravings  from 
it,  in  which  everything  is  English,  down  to  his  dog  Trump,  whose 
likeness  is  taken  along  with  his  master's.  In  his  picture  he  sits 
in  his  plain  English  coat,  vest,  and  cravat,  and  furred  cap. 

After  Hogarth  a  new  decade  in  art  began  with  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  whose  portrait,  by  himself,  is  contributed  to  the  Exhibition 
by  the  Royal  Academy  of  London ;  in  the  same  room — the  north- 
west pavilion — are  "  The  Marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,"  Stanfields 
"On  the  Scheldt,"  Wilkie's  "Digging  for  a  Rat,"  West's  "  Death  of 
General  Wolfe"  and  several  other  specimens  of  the  best  English  art. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds'  portrait  indicates  him,  so  far  as  a  very 
gentleman-like  man  could  be,  slightly  dapper,  under  the  middle 
height,  and  plump,  in  a  well-fitting  coat,  spotless  cravat  and  ruffles. 
The  face  round,  almost  chubby  and  ruddy,  while  keen,  bright,  and 
kindly.  It  is  as  a  portrait  painter  that  Sir  Joshua  takes  high  rank, 
though  his  imaginative  pictures  are  considerable  in  number,  and 
those  of  the  "Count  Ugolino  and  his  Sons,"  the  "Hercules 
Strangling  the  Serpents,"  not  to  say  those  pictures  which  have 
more  or  less  of  fancy  in  them,  such  as  "Mrs.  Siddons  as  the 
Tragic  Muse,"  "Garrick  between  Tragedy  and  Comedy,"  have 
enjoyed  a  great  reputation. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  75 

The  next  great  name  in  English  Art  which  we  meet  in  the 
same  pavilion  is  Turner's,  whose  "  Dolbadden  Castle,  North  Wales," 
his  diploma  picture,  is  sent  to  the  Exhibition  by  the  Royal  Academy 
of  London.  But  the  picture  is  so  black  that  one  cannot  see  much 
of  Turner  in  it;  much  fear  has  frequently  been  expressed  that 
Turner's  colors  are  evanescent,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
unless  some  "fixing"  is  done,  the  holders  of  Turners  will  some  day 
find  themselves  holders  of  blackened  canvasses. 

When  Turner  was  in  his  zenith,  Wilkie  arose,  and  although 
he  has  held  less  of  the  attention  of  the  public  than  Turner  received, 
yet  his  work — although  principally  genre  subjects,  whilst  Turner 
dwelt  most  upon  landscapes,  marines,  and  architecture— will  always 
hold,  and  possess  many  attractions  for  the  art  student  and  the 
picture  collector.  Contemporary  with  Wilkie,  William  Etty  became 
as  famous  on  figure  subjects  as  was  Wilkie  with  his  selections 
appealing  to  popular  taste.  Etty  is  represented  by  a  "Sleeping 
Nymph  and  Satyr,"  also  an  Academy  diploma  picture.  Daniell, 
Constable,  Gainsborough,  Mulready,  Landseer,  Creswick  and  Maclise, 
all  great  men  in  art,  of  the  past,  are  here  represented ;  and  the 
millions  who  have  been  in  these  rooms  of  Memorial  Hall  during 
the  past  six  months,  have  enjoyed  a  greater  boon  than  millions  of 
the  poor  country-men  and  country-women  of  the  artists ;  for 
those  Academy  pictures  are  closed  to  the  public  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  and  unless  one  has  the  taste  and  the  money, 
few  can  run  to  "London  during  the  season  to  see  the  exhibition 
of  pictures  of  the  past  and  present.  Of  the  present  English  Art 
there  is  a  very  liberal  collection  ;  and  one  has  only  to  look  over 
the  catalogue  to  see  from  the  names  of  Frith,  Faed,  Hunt,  Millais, 
Ansdell,  Goodall,  Calderon,  Tadema,  Riviere,  Poynter  and  Holl 
that  England  has  done  h~r  best  to  please  us,  and  we  are  thankful 
to  her  for  sending  valuable  paintings  belonging  to  the  Nation,  and 
those  not  the  property  of  the  Nation  are  the  property  of  private 
collectors.  We  do  not  remember  seeing  one  label  "sold,"  on  an 
English  work  of  art ;  in  striking  contrast  to  other  nation's  exhibits 
where  the  ambition  seemed  to  be  that  the  owners  or  representa- 


76 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


tives  might  have  the  eclat  of  truthfully  attaching  a  "vendue"  label 
upon  a  painting.  Any  one  who  gave  the  matter  a  thought  felt  a 
keen  sense  of  littleness  to  pass  along  the  corridors  of  the  Art 
Galleries.  Several  rooms  were  devoted  to  salesrooms  of  New  York 
print  or  chromo  dealers,  who  exhibited  pictures  of  which  they 


"  The  Great  Exhibition, 


L'AFRICAINE. 

By  E.  Cctroni, 


The  Art  Gallery. } 


were  not  the  artists,  and  had  no  more  right  in  those  rooms  than 
had  the  owner  of  a  panorama  from  the  row  of  booths  on  the 
outside  of  the  Exhibition  grounds — provided  the  owner  of  the 
booth  had  paid  the  Commissioners  a  royalty  upon  his  revenue. 
Next,  it  was  painful  to  pass  from  a  room  in  the  Annex  to  confront 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  77 

n  row  of  cheap  crockery-ware.  Fine  Art,  forsooth! — with  large 
advertisements,  or  posters,  suitable  for  a  barricade  fence,  relieving 
the  Bowery-like  displays.  This  was  bad  management  and  injustice 
to  artists,  the  public,  and  to  the  exhibition  itself.  A  contribution 
from  a  wax-work  exhibition  had  a  place  in  the  Annex  of  the  Art 
Gallery,  but  this  seemed  to  be  more  than  a  slow-to-grumble 
American  public  would  tolerate,  and  after  a  fortnight's  exhibition 
of  an  object  which  no  lady — or.  gentleman,  for  that  matter — could 
look  at,  the  Superintendent  was  obliged  to  order  it  off,  and  it  found 
a  place  on  one  of  the  principal  streets  of  Philadelphia,  where 
people  could  gratify  a  questionable  curiosity  at  so  much  per  capita. 
England,  a  "nation  of  shopkeepers"  maintained  its  character  in  the 
Main  Building,  but  its  Art  is  held  above  the  dust  and  worry 
of  commerce.  A  private  gentleman  sent  a  "Venus,"  by  Gibson; 
Queen  Victoria  lent  us  one  of  the  best  pictures  by  our  country- 
man, Benjamin  West,  and  several  others  from  her  galleries ;  and 
the  Duke  of  Manchester  lent  the  portrait  of  one  with  whom  every 
one  of  us  has  been  familiar  "from  his  youth  upwards"— the 
portrait  of  Hannah  More,  she  who  called  at  the  house  of  Macauley's 
parents,  in  London,  one  day.  She  was  met  by  the  future  historian — 
then  about  four  years  of  age — who  came  to  the  door  to  receive 
her,  and  tell  her  that  his  parents  were  out,  but  that  if  she  would 
be  good  enough  to  come  in  he  would  bring  her  a  glass  of  old 
spirits  :  a  proposition  which  startled  Mrs.  More,  who  had  never 
aspired  beyond  cowslip  wine.  When  questioned  as  to  what  he 
knew  about  old  spirits,  he  could  only  say  that  Robinson  Crusoe 
often  had  some. 

Chief  among  the  English  artists  of  the  present  day — and  alone 
in  his  archaeological  art — stands  L.  Alma  Tadema,  who  contributes 
several  pictures  to  this  exhibition ;  or  rather  they  are  contributed 
by  their  various  owners,  for  we  imagine  that  Mr.  Tadema  can 
have  few  pictures  wanting  purchasers.  He  is  a  native  of 
Friesland,  and  for  many  years  resided  in  Paris,  receiving  medals  in 
that  city  and  in  Brussels  for  the  uncommon  merit  of  his  works. 
Since  the  Franco-Prussian  war  he  has  lived  in  London ;  the  artists 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


and  art-lovers  there  have    offered  him  that  warm   reception  which 


their  nation  has  ever  accorded  to  foreign  talent  naturalizing  itself 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  79 

among  them,  and  which  is  at  this  moment  enjoyed  as  well  by 
Tadema's  imitator,  Tissot,  as  by  the  Americans,  Boughton,  Hen- 
nessey, Miss  Lea,  and  Anthony  Lumley,  while  its  sincerity  and 
cordiality  remind  us  of  the  honorable  treatment  in  England  of 
Lely,  Kneller,  Vandyck,  Rubens  and  Holbein.  Mr.  Tadema.  is  one 
of  the  most  eminent  living  archaeological  painters;  his  works 
restore  the  antique  life  of  Greece,  Rome  and  Egypt  with  that 
fulness  and  accuracy  of  detail  which  his  teacher,  Baron  Leys,  con- 
ferred on  mediaeval  subjects.  He  exhibits  now  at  every  annual 
display  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  has  contributed  no  less  than 
six  of  his  most  important  works  to  the  English  section  of  the 
International  Exhibition.  They  are  "The  Vintage  Festival,"  "The 
Mummy,"  "  Convalescence,"  in  oil-color,  which  we  engrave  on  page 
86;  and  "The  Picture,"  "The  Three  Friends,"  and  "History  of 
an  Honest  Wife,"  in  water-color — the  last  subject  in  fact  being 
three  pictures  framed  •  together  on  account  of  the  connected  theme. 
The  original  of  "The  Convalescent"  is  not  large,  and  reminds 
us  strangely  of  some  mosaic  just  dug  up  from  Pompeii — as  highly 
finished  as  the  celebrated  "Pliny's  Doves,"  and  as  dramatic  as  the 
"Choragus  instructing  his  Actors."  We  are  transported,  by  the 
magic  art  of  this  wizard  painter,  into  the  times  of  the  later  emperors, 
when  rococo  had  completely  usurped  the  simplicity  and  ponderousness 
of  early  Roman  taste,  when  the  arts  of  conquered  Greece  had 
rendered  the  Italians  finical  without  rendering  them  elegant,  and 
when  even  the  false  Egyptian  and  false  Hellenic  of  Adrian  had 
been  forgotten,  and  the  grandiose  had  sunk  into  the  trivial  through- 
out all  the  mansions  of  Rome.  The  Museums  of  Europe,  the 
lavas  of  Herculaneum,  and  the  fragmentary  busts  of  the  statue- 
galleries,  have  to  be  ransacked,  for  costumes,  hints,  habits  and 
back-grounds,  before  such  a  group  as  "The  Convalescent"  can  be 
constructed,  so  true  to  life  in  the  first  century.  Amid  the  worst  inno- 
vations of  Pompeian  taste— the  bewigged  toilets,  the  pillars  painted 
part  way  up  and  merging  into  pilasters,  the  garments  chequered 
with  a  confusion  of  colors,  the  household  divinities  made  absurd 
with  barber's  block  frivolity — he  places  his  group  of  the  invalid 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  81 

dame  and  her  attendants.  He  knows  well  that  the  imagination  is 
more  easily  caught  with  the  every-day  litter  and  vulgar  ugliness 
of  a  period  of  decline  than  with  the  frigid  perfection  of  the  more 
elegant  epochs.  The  graceful  figures  of  an  Attic  vase  would  touch 
us  but  slightly,  and  nothing  would  come  of  an  effort  to  interest 
the  mind  with  the  Grecian  couches  and  reclining  nymphs  of  the 
classical  period  as  the  French  restored  them  in  the  day  of  the 
Revolution. 

Our  artist's  persons  are  direct,  real,  ungraceful,  and  convincing. 
The  noble  dame  lounges  on  her  carved  seat.  Her  hair  is 
bunched  up  into  a  hideous  mop,  which  gives  her  infinite  satis- 
faction. Her  accomplished  slave  has  dipped  her  hand  into  the 
round  box  of  parchments,  and  has  extracted  some  of  the  light 
literature  of  the  day — not  that  story  in  Virgil  which  made  an 
empress  faint,  but  the  love-poems  of  Ovid  or  the  graceful  fancies 
of  Catullus.  A  younger  slave-woman  kneels  in  the  foreground  over 
a  tempting  luncheon.  It  is  homely  and  stately  at  once.  It  is 
parlor-life  in  the  days  when  they  talked  Latin  without  making  it 
a  school-exercise,  and  perhaps,  in  some  cool  corner  around  the 
pillar,  Pliny  is  writing  one  of  his  pleasant  letters. 

Christian  resignation,  which  soothes  the  bed  of  sickness,  and 
finds  an  answer  even  for  the  yawning  challenge  of  the  grave,  is 
most  poetically  illustrated  by  the  British  artist  F.  Holl,  in  his  two 
subjects  contributed  to  the  Exhibition.  One  is  entitled  "  The  Lord 
gave,  the  Lord  hath  taken  away;  blessed  be  the  name  of  the 
Lord;"  the  other,  "The  Village  Funeral:  'I  am  the  Resurrection 
and  the  Life.'  "  The  former,  lent  by  its  owner,  F.  C.  Pawle,  Esq., 
forms  the  theme  of  our  engraving  on  page  92,  it  seems  to  attain  the 
very  acme  of  religious  pathos.  We  share  in  the  first  meal  which 
unites  an  humble  family  after  some  awful  bereavement.  The  watchers 
who  have  taken  their  turns  at  the  sick  couch  are  released  now — 
their  faithful  task  is  over;  the  household  whose  regular  ways  have 
been  overturned  by  the  malady  has  come  back  to  its  wanton  course 
again,  and  the  pious  nurses  have  no  care  to  prevent  them  from 
meeting  at  the  board  as  of  old.  Is  there  anything  more  dreadful 


82 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


than  that  first  meal  after  a  funeral?  The  mockery  of  leisure  and 
ease — the  sorrowful,  decorous  regularity  of  the  repast — the  security 
from  those  hindrances  and  interruptions  that  so  long  have  marred 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." 


VENUS. 

Gibson. 


\TheArt  Gallery. 


the  order  of  the  attendance— these  improvements  are  here  indeed, 
for  what  they  are  worth;  but  where  is  the  tender  hand  that  was 
wont  to  break  the  bread  for  the  household?— where  are  the  lips 
that  used  to  breathe  forth  the  humble  grace  before  meat?  It  is 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  83 

the  very  emptiness  of  a  once  cheerful  form — the  bitterness  of  meat 
eaten  with  tears.     The  frugal  board  is  neat  and  pleasant — 

"But  oh  for  the  touch  of  a  vanished  hand, 
And  the  sound  of  a  voice  that  is  still!" 

In  Mr.  Roll's  picture  we  see  this  ghastly,  unnatural  decorum 
of  the  table  spread  with  funeral  bakemeats :  the  wan  woman  beside 
it,  whose  hollow  eyes  and  tear-worn  cheeks  tell  of  faithful  watching 
for  many  a  weary  night,  is  neat  with  the  miserable  neatness  of  the 
funeral  evening;  the  young  brother  in  the  back-ground  is  brushed 
and  combed  more  than  his  wont,  and  his  attitude  has  an  unnatural 
restraint;  the  old  woman  behind  is  tender  and  sympathetic,  beyond 
the  customary  usage  and  practice  of  that  kind  of  old  women. 
Death  has  come  among  them  all  like  a  leveling  wind,  reducing 
everything  to  the  regularity  of  desolation.  Out  of  this  weary  scene 
of  frustration  and  lassitude  arise  the  words  of  the  sincere-looking, 
earnest  young  curate:  "The  Lord  gave,  the  Lord  hath  taken  away;" 
he  stands  by  the  robbed  fireside;  he  joins  the  family-circle  whose 
most  precious  link  'is  gone,  and  he  confidently  cries,  "Blessed  be 
the  name  of  the  Lord!"  It  is  the  very  triumph  of  faith  out  of 
the  jaws  of  death!  Mr.  Holl  has  uttered  that  sure  word  of  promise 
which  is  the  best  reliance  of  our  religion.  In  the  assurance  of  the 
immortality  which  is  to  join  the  family  at  last  in  a  more-enduring 
mansion,  is  the  highest  boon  of  Christianity.  The  expressions  here 
are  so  earnest,  pure,  devout,  and  full  of  tenderness,  that  the  painting 
is  as  elegant  as  a  canto  of  In  Memoriain.  It  is  deservedly  a  great 
favorite,  and  forms  a  precious  example  of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
profundity  which  is  the  redeeming  feature  of  English  art. 

The  pathetic  subject  of  which  we  give  a  representation  on  page 
98,  "  La  Rota,"  is  by  Mr.  Rudolph  Lehmann,  of  London.  The 
picture  represents  an  incident  only  too  common  in  Rome,  where 
the  scene  is  laid.  A  wretched  mother  has  brought  her  babe  in 
the  evening  to  the  foundling  hospital,  and  is  about  to  place  the  tiny 
creature  in  the  "wheel,"  or  turning-box  at  the  window,  to  become 
henceforth  a  waif  and  unclassified  citizen.  In  a  little  while  she 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  85 

will  have  departed,  and  the  good  nun  within  will  search  the  recep- 
tacle for  the  little  nestling,  never  more  to  know  mother  or  kindred. 
The  culpable  and  weak-hearted  girl,  of  course,  is  not  too  hardened 
to  part  from  her  offspring  without  a  pang;  there  is  genuine  grief 
in  her  last  despairing  kiss,  and,  perhaps,  genuine  pious  feeling  in 
the  care  with  which  the  rosary  has  been  brought  along  with  the 
cradle.  It  is  the  resolute  endurance  of  obloquy  for  the  future  advan- 
tage of  the  infant,  of  which  the  impulsive,  impressionable  Southern 
character  is  incapable;  to  find  this  heroism  of  the  depths,  we  have 
to  seek  a  sterner  and  more  exalted  race,  among  the  duty-laden 
peoples  of  the  North — ex.  gr.y  Hester  Prynne,  and  "The  Scarlet 
Letter."  Mr.  Lehmann  has  thrown  his  figure  into  a  very  graceful 
pose,  without  doing  violence  to  that  directness  of  action  and  uncal- 
culating  simplicity  which  the  subject  demands,  and  which  these 
moments  of  soul-outpouring  provide.  The  cradle  deserves  a  note, 
too- -cradle  and  basket  at  once,  with  hoop  handle  for  convenient 
transport,  such  as  the  Italian  poor  make  use  of.  How  often  has 
this  cradle-pannier  made  its  innocent  journeys  from  door-step  to 
hearth,  and  from  floor  to  grass-plot,  perhaps  for  generations,  without 
consciousness  that  it  should  one  night  make  its  stealthy  trip,  along 
the  narrowest,  filthiest  and  loneliest  alleys  of  Rome,  to  the  "  Rota" 
in  the  hospital  of  infamy! 

Two  of  Mr.  Orchardson's  pictures,  "  Prince  Henry,  Poins  and 
Falstafif,"  and  "Moonlight  on  the  Lagoons,  Venice,"  the  former 
lent  by  Mr.  Moxon,  and  the  latter  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Turner,  are  in 
the  principal  gallery  of  the  English  Art  Exhibit.  Mr.  Orchardson 
commenced  his  career  as  an  artist  by  drawing  on  wood  for  the 
publishers,  but  during  the  past  twelve  years  he  has  worked  steadily  at 
the  brush,  and  has  gained  his  reputation  on  such  subjects  as  "Prince 
Henry,  Poins  and  Falstafif."  Indeed  he  is  never  more  at  home 
than  in  an  interior;  and  what  Terburg  has  done  for  the  Dutch  it 
is  probable  that  Mr.  Orchardson  will  do  for  the  English  of  the 
last  few  centuries.  He  has  wisely  left  Venice  to  the  imagination 
in  his  picture  of  "  Moonlight  on  the  Lagoons,"  and  except  for  the 
gondola,  it  might  serve  for  a  scene  on  the  Mississippi  or  the  Ohio. 


86  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876-"]  THE  CONVALESCENT. 

By  Jlma  Tadima. 


[The  Art  Gallery. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  87 

The  gondola  with  its  freight  and  attendants  is  on  its  way  to  the 
market  in  the  city,  to  reach  its  place  at  or  before  day-break. 
Alter  the  character  of  the  vessel,  and  we  could  fancy  it  wending 
its  way  across  Lake  Pontchartrain  to  reach  the  market  in  New 
Orleans  by  day-break.  The  picture  is  an  excellent  study  of  light 
and  shade,  but  fulfils  nothing  in  composition  further  than  the 
canons  of  art  demand. 

Those  who  paid  their  visits  to  Europe  by  entering  at  the  port 
of  Glasgow,  will  remember  with  a  sense  of  pleasure  the  sail  up 
the  Frith  of  Clyde,  between  the  sloping  lawns  of  Ayrshire  on  the 
east,  and  the  grand  and  mountainous  ridges  of  Argyleshire  on  the 
west.  Mr.  Wm.  Daniell  who  lived  the  greater  portion  of  his  life 
on  the  edge  of  the  sea,  and  made  the  circuit  of  England  and 
Scotland  from  Cornwall  by  the  west  side,  round  the  Hebrides  and 
Orkney  Islands,  skirting  the  eastern  coast,  sketch-book  in  hand, 
and  returning  to  the  port  whence  he  started,  is  represented  here  by 
the  diploma  picture  he  gave  to  the  Royal  Academy  when  elected 
a  member  of  that  most  valuable  institution.  "View  of  the  Coast 
of  Scotland"  is  certainly  the  place  we  have  indicated;  and  we  fancy 
we  see  Culzean  Castle,  bright  and  romantic  as  it  catches  the 
morning  sun  of  the  picture. 

In  the  room  devoted  to  the  South  Kensington  Museum  are 
three  studies  for  mosaics — that  by  Mr.  Poynter  of  "  Apelles"  is 
one  of  the  best,  and  his  conception  of  the  great  Ephesian  robs 
him  of  the  atmosphere  of  romance,  and  makes  him  what  he 
undoubtedly  was — an  ordinary  human  being  with  a  wonderful 
genius  of  art.  So  high  did  Apelles  reach  in  his  profession  that 
the  Romans  at  one  period  spoke  not  of  painting,  but  of  the 
Apellean  art.  It  is  not  so  long  since  that  we  were  surprised  with 
the  information  that  a  famous  collector  of  New  York,  now  deceased, 
had  paid  sixty  or  seventy  thousand  dollars  for  a  picture  by  the 
greatest  French  artist  of  the  present  day,  but  this  is  poor  remu- 
neration compared  with  the  sums  Apelles  and  contemporary  painters 
received  for  their  works.  For  painting  Alexander  wielding  the 
thunderbolts  of  Jupiter,  in  the  temple  of  Diana  he  received  about 


88 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


two  hundred  thousand  dollars ;  and  it  was  no  unusual  thing  for 
artists  of  about  that  period  to  receive  sums  varying  from  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars  to  half  a  million  dollars.  So  rich  and 
generous  was  Apelles  that  he  offered  Protogenes,  of  Rhodes,  five 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


GANYMEDE. 

Itatia.il  G.itlery. 


[  The  Art  Gallery. 


hundred  thousand  dollars  for  his  pictures  on  hand.  Protogenes 
was  not  patronized  by  the  Rhodians — Apelles  recognized  a  true 
artist  in  Protogenes,  and  spread  the  report  that  he  intended  selling 
the  Rhodian  artist's  pictures  as  his  own,  thus  opening  the  eyes  of 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  89 

the  public  to  the  merit  of  their  painter,  and  they  accordingly 
secured  his  pictures  at  a  still  higher  price.  One  thinks  upon  how 
plentiful  money  must  have  been  in  those  three  or  four  centuries 
before  the  era  of  Christ. 

Of  all  the  forms  of  the  beautiful,  perhaps  none  excite  the 
admiration  and  sympathy  of  the  public  mind  in  a  higher  degree 
than  the  products  of  the  sculptor's  art.  To  the  uneducated  eye, 
the  human  form,  modeled  in  clay  or  chiseled  in  pure  white  marble, 
seems  fraught  with  grace  and  vigor,  and  an  unconscious  education 
of  the  feelings  is  going  on  as  it  gazes  on  the  wondrous  symmetry 
of  a  Venus  de  Medicis,  or  beholds  the  agonizing  throes  of  a 
Laocoon.  To  the  man  of  taste  and  refinement  the  process  of 
theught  and  appreciation  is  different,  though  the  ultimate  effect  is 
the  same; — to  both  there  is  profit.  While  the  ordinary  mind  is 
absorbed,  spell-bound,  entranced  in  a  kind  of  admiring  awe,  the 
educated  man  admires,  criticises,  appreciates.  Though  the  art- 
education  of  both  men  has  been  conducted  on  different  principles, 
the  result  arrived  at  is  precisely  similar,  and  both  are  equally 
informed  and  humanized. 

The  art  of  sculpture,  with  the  kindred  arts  of  modeling,  carving, 
and  casting,  are  of  very  remote  antiquity.  The  ancients  availed 
themselves  of  almost  every  known  substance  capable  of  being  cut 
or  moulded  into  form;  and  we  find  the  remains  of  figures,  archi- 
tectural ornaments,  vases,  lamps  and  pedestals,  in  marbles,  woods, 
metals,  ivory,  bone,  granite,  prophyry,  basalt,  alabaster,  stucco,  wax, 
clay,  and  terra  cotta  or  baked  earth.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  the  art  of  sculpture  was  known  before  the  flood ;  and  we  have 
certain  evidence  that  it  was  practised  in  India  and  America  by 
civilized  races  of  men,  known  now  only  traditionally,  and  of  whom 
no  other  traces  remain.  Indeed,  the  discoveries  of  Mr.  Layard  in 
Nineveh,  prove  incontestably  that  the  sculptor's  art  was  practised, 
and  arose  to  a  remarkable  degree  of  perfection,  thousands  of  years 
ago.  Universal  as  language,  the  art  has  risen  from  the  rude  forms 
of  savage  worship  to  the  perfection  in  which  we  view  it  in  our 
public  buildings,  our  streets,  and  lately  in  the  International  Exhi- 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


bition.  The  productions  in  sculpture  are  either  complete  figures 
or  groups,  which  may  be  viewed  from  all  sides;  or  objects  more 
or  less  raised,  without  being  entirely  detached  from  the  background 
with  which  they  are  connected.  This  is  called  relief,  the  kinds  and 
degrees  of  which  are  denned  by  modern  writers  and  artists  by  the 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876"} 


THE  WHITE  ROSE. 

By  P.  Guarnerio. 


[The  Art  Gallery. 


words  alto,  or  high  relief,  where  the  objects  project  so  as  to  be 
nearly  distinct;  basso,  or  low  relief,  where  the  figure  is.  slightly 
raised  from  the  background;  and  mezzo,  or  half-relief,  where  not 
more  than  the  face  and  half  the  figure  is  raised  from  the  place  on 
which  it  is  sculptured.  Examples  of  these  were  to  be  seen  in  the 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  91 

Exhibition.  Nothing  can  be  more  simple  than  the  mechanical  pro- 
cesses of  sculpture.  As  soon  as  the  artist  has  conceived  his 
subject,  and  made  his  drawing  upon  paper,  a  model  in  clay,  or 
some  soft  material,  is  executed  in  little.  In  the  production  of  the 
model  it  is  that  the  artist-mind  is  displayed;  if  that  be  true  and 
natural,  its  transference  to  stone  or  bronze  is  a  matter  of  com- 
paratively minor  importance.  Upon  a  frame  of  wood  or  iron,  the 
figure  is  built  up  to  the  size  it  is  to  assume  in  the  chosen  material, 
and  moulded  by  the  hands  and  certain  simple  instruments  in  wood 
and  ivory.  Arrived  at  this  stage,  the  drawing,  or  original  idea  of 
the  future  state  is  reconsidered ;  and  by  the  assistance  of  the  human 
figure,  minutely  studied,  is  carried  to  completion.  Statues  are 
frequently  modeled  nude,  and  afterwards  draped;  and  that  accuracy 
of  form,  and  gracefulness  of  outline  may  be  obtained,  draperies  are 
commonly  placed  upon  lay  figures,  the  details  of  which  are  copied 
by  the  artist.  When  the  clay  model  has  sufficiently  dried  and 
shrunk,  a  mould  is  made  of  it  by  covering  it  with  gypsum  or 
plaster  of  Paris.  When  this  is  sufficiently  hardened,  the  clay  within 
is  carefully  removed,  and  there  remains  an  exact  mould  of  the  model. 
This  being  carefully  washed,  and  the  interior  brushed  over  with  a 
composition  of  oil  and  soap,  the  mould  is  thoroughly  filled  in  all 
its  parts  with  a  semi-liquid  mixture  of  gypsum,  which,  in  a  few 
days,  becomes  sufficiently  hard  to  allow  the  mould  to  be  removed, 
and  thus  a  complete  cast  of  the  model  is  procured.  From  this 
short  description  of  the  method  almost  universally  pursued,  it  will 
be  seen  how  the  plaster  casts  in  the  International  Exhibition  have 
been  produced. 

The  model  is  to  be  executed  in  marble.  The  process  of  trans- 
ference is  a  matter  of  mechanical  rather  than  inventive  skill.  By 
means  of  a  long  steel  needle,  attached  to  a  pole  or  standard,  and 
capable  of  being  withdrawn  or  extended,  the  exact  situation  of- 
numerous  points  and  cavities  in  the  figure  to  be  imitated  are 
ascertained ;  and  the  statue  is  rudely  blocked  out  and  pointed.  A 
superior  workman,  called  a  carver,  then  takes  the  marble  and  copies 
the  more  minute  portions  of  the  work  by  means  of  chisels,  files 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  93 

and  rasps ;  and  the  statue  being  now  in  a  sufficiently  forward  state, 
the  final  finishing  touches  are  given  by  the  sculptor  himself.  In 
the  production  of  the  model  and  harmony  of  effect,  beauty  of 
feature,  variety  of  texture  and  surface,  and  consistency  of  detail  in 
form  and  expression  in  the  finished  statue,  the  sculptor's  skill  is 
eminently  displayed;  and  while  the  ancients  relied  almost  on  the 
chisel  for  their  effects,  the  modern  artist  in  marble  approaches  the 
surface  of  his  statue  with  extreme  caution,  and  employs  safer  means 
of  giving  a  perfect  finish  to  what  may  bring  him  both  fame  and 
fortune. 

Italy,  the  mother  of  arts,  contributed  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
nine  oil  paintings,  few  of  which  were  distinctive,  and  but  few  of 
which  were  above  mediocrity;  we  engrave  on  page  126,  Michis* 
"Card  Party  in  the  Sacristy;"  but  as  Italy  has  been  most  pre-eminent 
in  its  display  of  sculpture,  we  engrave  a  number  of  the  most 
remarkable  pieces.  One  of  them  "The  Forced  Prayer,"  on  page 
100,  by  Pietro  Guarnerio,  of  Milan,  bears  off  the  votes  of  the  greatest 
number  of  spectators.  It  is  an  epigram  in  sculpture,  and  it  is 
epigrammatic  sculpture  carried  to  the  limits  of  the  permissible. 
This  telling  little  figure  has  received  a  medal.  It  is  easier  to 
understand  the  subject  from  our  spirited  engraving  than  to  con- 
struct it  in  the  mind  from  a  description.  The  handsome  little  rebel 
is  standing  in  his  shirt,  sleepy  and  ready  for  bed,  but  denied  the 
blessings  of  repose  until  the  customary  paternoster  is  gone  through 
with.  Conscious  that  there  will  be  no  rest  for  him  until  the  ordeal 
is  over,  he  begins  to  mumble  the  holy  words  with  frankest  hatred, 
throwing  himself  into  the  prescribed  attitude  of  supplication  like  a 
trick-dog  into  his  positions,  with  a  skill  derived  from  long  practice 
rather  than  from  feeling,  while  the  implied  devotion  of  the  routine 
is  belied  by  every  line  of  his  face,  and  from  his  piously  lowered 
eye  escapes  the  tear  of  temper  and  not  of  contrition.  Of  half-a- 
score  varied  works  by  Signer  Guarnerio,  this  one  probably  has  the 
most  friends. 

An  instructive  comparison  of  overcoming  the  technical  diffi- 
culties of  sculpture  may  be  made  by  looking  first  at  Mr.  Bailly's 


94 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


lightly-poised  figure,  and  then  at  some  of  the  sculptures  which 
Italy  has  sent  over  with  a  lavish  hand  to  the  Centennial  Exhi- 
bition. However  these  statues  may  disappoint  the  lovers  of 
classicality  and  repose,  there  is  no  question  that  in  overcoming 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  iSj6."\ 


FARFALLA. 

By  Caroni 


[The  Art  Gallery, 


the  stubbornness  of  material,  they  teach  many  a  valuable  lesson 
to  our  chiselers.  We  would  indicate,  as  special  examples  of  the 
triumph  over  this  kind  of  difficulty,  the  hair  in  Caroni's  "Afri- 
caine,"  which  we  engrave  on  page  76,  and  the  effect  in  the  same 
artist's  "Farfalla,"  engraved  on  this  page.  These  works,  though 
completely  dissevered  from  the  Greek  theory  of  sculpture,  have  a 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  95 

rich,  pictorial,  and  as  it  were,  colored  quality  of  their  own  which 
justifies  the  theory  on  which  they  are  carved.  If  the  success  in 
representing  texture  were  attained  by  an  uncommon  and  worthless 
degree  of  mere  finish,  it  would  not  be  commendable;  but  exami- 
nation will  convince  us  that  it  is  not  the  difficulty  or  the  patience, 
but  the  live  flash  and  expressiveness  of  the  touch  that  gives  the 
effect.  The  heavy  crisped  tresses  of  the  "Africaine"  are  no  more 
closely  finished  than  the  smoothest  locks  and  bands  of  hair 
sculptured  by  Chantrey  or  Westmacott;  but  the  sculptor,  putting 
a  brain  into  his  chisel,  has  set  it  to  thinking,  and  invented  for  his 
woolly  convolutions  a  glancing,  sketchy  touch  as  expressive  as  the 
brushing  of  Reynolds  on  canvas.  The  Italian  cleverness,  as  a 
mechanical  and  inventive  development  of  resources,  is  well  worth 
studying.  Signor  Caroni  has  chosen  subjects  well  adapted  to  show 
off  his  rich  and  glittering  style.  In  the  "  Africaine"  we  have  the 
heroine  of  Meyerbeer's  opera,  the  black  Afric  queen  whose  dusky 
soul  was  illumined  with  the  light  of  tenderness  at  the  visit  of 
Vasco  de  Gama.  For  these  primitive  intelligences  love  is  the 
apple  of  knowledge;  when  it  is  once  bitten,  the  nature  is  changed, 
the  Eden  is  spoiled,  the  contentment  is  lost,  and  the  whole  soul 
is  thrown  into  the  passion  of  desire,  for  bliss  or  for  despair.  In 
Signor  Caroni's  picturesque  work  we  have  the  uncultured  queen 
tortured  by  the  pangs  of  a  bootless  passion,  her  supple  body 
thrown  broodingly  beside  the  couch  where  her  hero  dreams  of 
another,  and  watching  with  jealous  eyes  the  lips  that  murmur  of 
her  rival.  In  his  "  Farfalla"  we  are  amused  with  a  lighter  and  more 
hopeful  subject.  It  is  all  grace,  spontaneity,  sweetness,  and  pas- 
toral charm.  Its  technical  merits  disappear  under  the  gracious 
elegance  of  the  conception.  From  "La  Farfalla"  to  Selika,  the 
"  Africane,"  there  is  a  gulf  of  transition,  but  the  "Farfalla,"  lovely  as 
she  is,  is  eclipsed  by  the  strange  tropical  intensity  of  the  "Selika." 
Equal  in  the  technical  part  of  the  carver's  art,  there  is  no  com- 
parison in  the  lofty  scope  of  the  subject. 

We   must   pass  without    comment   the  various   other  excellent 
examples  of  Italian   sculpture  which  are  engraved  in  this  division 


96 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


of    our  work,    and    take    a    rapid    glance   at    some    of   the    other 
galleries. 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


BOY  AND  BIRD. 

By  Peduzai. 


\TheArtGallery. 


Germany,  for   unknown    reasons,  did  not  do  justice  to  herself. 
Many  of   her  best    artists  were    unrepresented.     The    number   of 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  97 

works  in  all  was  but  one  hundred  and  forty-five,  and  a  large  pro- 
portion was  the  property  of  the  artists.  Nevertheless  there  were 
several  works  of  interest,  such  as  Meyer  von  Bremen's  "  Gossips," 
and  Count  von  Harrach's  "  Luther  Arrested,"  which  we  engrave 
on  page  130.  The  episode  it  depicts  is  described  in  the  Life  of 
Luther,  and  the  Count  has  given  us  a  living  picture. 

Austria  contributed  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  pictures,  the 
most  important  of  which,  "Venice  Paying  Homage  to  Catherine 
Cornaro,"  by  Hans  Makart,  which  we  engrave  on  page  74.  It 
seems  to  be  inspired  by  the  happiest  influence  from  Paul  Veronese, 
and  plays  the  same  part  as  one  of  that  master's  crowded  compo- 
sitions in  elevating  the  mind  to  a  state  of  proud  and  noble  happi- 
ness by  the  contemplation  of  an  ideal  festival-world  bathed  in 
heaven's  own  silver  light.  The  subject  is  that  fair  Venitian  who 
endowed  Venice  with  the  realm  of  Cyprus.  Catherine  Cornaro, 
a  noblewoman  of  Venice  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
became  the  wife  and  widow  of  the  Cyprian  king,  James  de 
Lusignan.  After  ruling  the  island  as  queen  for  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  she  at  length  conferred  the  island  on  her  native  country 
by  abdication — certainly  the  queenliest  gift  that  Venice  ever  received. 
The  painter  in  dealing  with  the  subject  has  pleased  his  fancy  with 
the  various  sumptuous  images  evoked  by  this  passage  of  history — 
the  singular  idea  of  a  lonely  lady  governing  the  island  consecrated 
to  Venus  from  the  earliest  dawn  of  fable,  and  then  by  a  feminine 
caprice  of  abnegation  giving  up  her  state  and  becoming  once  more 
a  Venetian  republican.  He  accordingly  represents  her  seated  on 
a  wharf,  whence  steps  descend  into  the  sea,  and  whither  the  argo- 
sies of  Venice  direct  their  sails.  Maidens  kneel  at  her  feet  to 
offer  her  flowers  and  treasure;  a  statesman  like  a  Venetian  doge 
stands  at  the  right  hand  of  her  throne;  her  courtiers  are  women; 
forms  of  beauty  surround  her  on  every  side ;  musicians  peal  out 
her  praises  through  their  instruments  of  gold.  It  is  the  pomp 
and  wealth  of  the  Renaissance  in  Venice.  The  appearance  of  this 
picture  definitely  secured  for  Makart  the  esteem  of  his  fellow 
artists,  and  made  friends  of  some  of  his  previous  enemies,  the 


LA  ROTA -THE  FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL,  AT  ROME. 

By  R.  Lehman  n. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  99 


critics.  Among  the  latter,  Bruno  Meyer,  who  had  spoken  very 
severely  about  some  of  the  artist's  earlier  work,  declared  that 
Paul  Veronese's  paintings  must  have  looked  like  this  when  they 
were  fresh  from  the  easel. 

Spain  was  represented  by  one  hundred  and  forty-one  oil 
paintings,  Denmark  by  fifteen,  Sweden  by  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight, 
Norway  by  fifty-two,  Brazil  by  ten,  Mexico  thirty-five — principally 
loaned  by  the  National  Academy — the  Argentine  Republic  by  thirty- 
four,  Canada  by  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight,  France  by  two 
hundred  and  ninety-eight,  England  by  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
three  and  the  United  States  by  six  hundred  and  eleven. 

Among  the  seventy  contributions  of  Russia  were  several  that 
attracted  attention.  The  subjects  were  mostly  original,  but  the 
treatment  had  no  distinctive  national  characteristic.  It  was,  how- 
ever, good,  and  worthy  of  comparison  with  the  best  in  the  Exhi- 
bition. The  principal  contributions  were  by  JooravlefF,  Semiradsky, 
Skirmunt  and  Lindholm, — the  latter  by  a  marine  landscape,  and  the 
others  by  historical  and  genre  subjects. 

The  Netherlands  sent  one  hundred  and  sixty  paintings,  among 
which  were  many  works  of  unquestionable  excellence.  Israels  is 
the  head  of  the  school  and  is  distinguished  by  delicacy  of  senti- 
ment and  simplicity  of  statement.  He  had  two  pictures  which 
were  well  worthy  of  attention;  but  it  is  evident  that  this  artist 
and  nearly  all  the  others  in  these  galleries  attach  more  importance 
to  the  teachings  of  the  French  school  than  to  the  traditions  of  the 
Dutch.  Bisschop,  the  Mesdags,  Kate,  Van  Elten  and  Altmann  con- 
tributed acceptably  to  the  display.  Altmann  sent  several  copies 
after  well-known  masters— one  of  them — Paul  Potter's  "Young 
Bull,"  was  so  life-like  that  a  well-known  collector  at  his  first  sight 
of  this  picture  exclamed,  "What!  Paul  Potter." 

Belgium  sent  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  pictures,  and  a  small 
choice  collection  of  statuary.  In  the  room  where  the  Belgian 
sculpture  was,  there  were  exhibited  small  terra  cotta  models 
belonging  to  the  familiar  picture  sculpture  school  and  representing 
scenes  from  domestic  life.  Their  merit  consisted  in  their  broad 


1 00 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


humor   and    true    expression,  to  which    may  be    added    great  care 
and  ability  shown  in  the  modeling. 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}         THE  FORCED  PRAYER. 

By  P.  Guarnerio. 


|  The  Art  Gallery, 


Sculpture  is   the  grandest,  most    ancient,  and   most  durable  of 
the   arts.      The  works  which  delight  the   critic  of  to-day,  and  are 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  101 

believed  to  mark  the  golden  age  of  statuary,  date  their  origin 
many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The  full  beauty  of  the 
human  form  has  never  been  so  accurately  described  as  by  the 
Greek  sculptors.  The  mythology  of  the  country  gave  to  their 
efforts  an  elevation  and  purity  of  thought  which  in  these  days 
cannot  be  conveyed  to  similar  subjects  however  skilfully  manipu- 
lated. Hence,  the  tendency  of  sculpture  has  been  to  moderate  the 
severity  of  the  ancient  school,  and  to  create  another  in  which 
clothes  should  net  be  wholly  disregarded.  The  toga  imposed  itself 
on  the  thoughts  and  consciences  of  artists.  Were  it  a  booted 
warrior  with  a  cocked  hat  that  had  to  be  depicted,  he  was  found 
clad  in  the  garb  of  a  Roman  senator.  An  absurdity  so  conspicuous 
could  not  long  continue.  A  new  school  sprang  up.  Its  aim  was 
to  call  a  spade  a  spade.  If  top-boots  and  a  cocked  hat  were 
wanted,  the  disciples  of  that  school  were  ready  to  supply  them. 
Nay,  if  Achilles  himself,  in  addition  to  his  one  natural  defect  had 
also  had  a  mole  on  the  top  of  his  nose,  they  would  have  alighted 
upon  it  with  enthusiasm.  Excess  of  any  kind  naturally  leads  to 
reaction,  and  reaction  took  place.  But  trie-various  theories  still  remain. 
The  purists  and  the  realists  contend  for  their  separate  ideas,  and  the 
able  men  on  either  side  prove  how  easy  it  is  for  both  to  be  right. 

France  sent  two  hundred  and  ninety-eight  paintings,  and  about 
fifty  most  beautifully  executed  pieces  of  statuary — in  bronze  or 
marble.  France,  like  Germany,  did  not  do  justice  to  itself  at  this 
Exhibition.  When  we  consider  that  nearly  all  the  greatest  names 
in  French  art  were  unrepresented,  we  can  imagine  what  kind  of 
exhibition  of  pictures  France  could  make.  Meissonier,  Gerome, 
Hamon,  Fromentin,  Troyon,  Corot,  Plassan,  Toulmouche  and 
Millet,  all  were  conspicuous  by  their  absence,  while  it  was  only 
the  most  indefatigable  industry  which  discovered  to  us  half  of  a 
picture  by  Rosa  Bonheur,  in  the  loan  collection,  and  a  whole 
picture  by  Cabanel  in  the  same  room, — the  subject,  "Francesca  de 
Rimini."  The  picture  was  loaned  by  Mrs.  A.  E.  Kidd.  Dr.  George 
Reuling  loaned  the  picture  "Autumn,"  the  figure  by  Dubufe.  the 
sheep  by  Rosa  Bonheur. 


102 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


By  Tantardini. 


THE  READER. 


An  eminent  art-critic 
has  remarked  that  until 
late  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  French 
school  of  painting  was 
in  all  respects  a  branch 
of  the  Italian  schools. 
This  may  be  true,  if  it  is 
intended  to  affirm  that, 
until  that  date,  the 
painters  of  France  had 
no  characteristic  style 
of  their  own  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the 
masters  after  whom  they 
worked.  But  if  by 
"  School  of  Painting" 
we  are  to  understand 
the  actual  painters  of  a 
given  country,  or  a  given 
period,  then  France  had 
certainly  many  distin- 
guished painters  long 
before  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  is  true  that 
what  Greek  art  had  long 
been,  and  indeed  still  is, 
to  the  civilized  world, 
the  art  of  Italy  became 
to  the  national  schools 
of  modern  Europe — a 
standard  of  comparison 
and  a  source  of  inspi- 
ration, to  which  the 
several  schools,  after 
many  intervals  of  de- 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  103 


cadence,  again  and  again  resorted,  for  the  purpose  of  readjusting 
their  ideal  and  regaining  the  path  of  progress.  Ever  since  the 
thirteenth  age,  the  age  of  Cimabue  and  of  Giotto,  the  schools  of 
Italy  have  held  the  supremacy  in  pictorial  art.  Other  national 
schools  have,  no  doubt,  produced  great  painters;  but  to  none  of 
them  has  the  world  of  modern  art  turned,  as  it  does  to  Italy,  as 
the  school  of  all  schools.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that,  at 
the  present  time,  the  sceptre  of  supremacy  has  fallen  from  her 
hands,  as  far  as  living  painters  are  concerned.  Her  pre-eminence 
is  a  thing  of  the  past.  France,  Belgium  and  England  can  pro- 
duce better  original  work  than  any  that  Italy  can  boast.  Her  best 
artists  have  of  late  contented  themselves  with  copying  the  great 
pictures  of  their  ancient  masters;  and  in  copying  they  have  lost 
the  power  of  originating  new  and  important  works. 

The  commencement  of  art-history  in  France  is  traced  by  some 
voluminous  writers  to  the  era  of  glass-staining,  which  attained  a 
high  state  of  perfection  in  medieval  France.  The  attempt  has, 
no  doubt,  been  made  with  a  pardonable  desire  to  assign  as  high 
an  antiquity  as  possible  to  painting.  Yet  the  rejoinder  is  obvious, 
that  the  two  forms  of  art  have  no  fundamental  connection;  each 
must  stand  on  its  own  principles,  which  are  widely  different;  and 
the  dignity  of  French  art-history  is  not  really  promoted  by 
confusing  things  which  have  only  a  very  remote  relation  one  to 
the  other. 

Turn  we  to  George  Becker,  of  Paris,  whose  "Rizpah"  is 
probably  the  most  impressive  picture  in  the  Exhibition.  One 
fancies  this  work  to  emerge  from  some  gloomy  studio,  whose  tenant 
is  aged,  tall,  morose,  and  poetical.  On  the  contrary,  little  George 
Becker  is  one  of  the  least  terrific  and  most  likable  of  dwarfish 
youths,  a  mild  butt  for  the  raillery  of  his  taller  chums  among  the 
pupils  of  Gerome. 

Amid  the  paint-shops  and  costume-markets  of  the  Latin 
Quarter  is  to  be  seen  often  a  small  fresh-faced  figure,  with  a 
good  aquiline  profile  overshadowed  by  an  immensely  tall  and 
glossy  hat;  in  the.  hand  an  artist's  box  of  colors,  which  is  of  a 
size  almost  to  drag  upon  the  ground,  and  which  conceals  a  large 


104 


THE   GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


proportion  of  the  person  of  the  walker,  as   he    spreads  his    short 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."]  THE  VINE  GROWER. 

By  A.  Kartholdi. 


[The  French  Gallery. 


compasses  to   their   utmost  distention   in   getting  briskly  over  the 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  105 

ground.  It  is  Becker.  "Come  back  with  your  color-box  or  in 
it,"  says  the  studio  friend  from  whom  he  parts,  alluding  to  the 
Spartan  and  his  shield.  He  takes  all  jests  with  a  quiet,  good- 
natured  smile,  and  goes  home  to  paint  tragedy.  We  recollect 
walking  with  him  to  the  funeral  of  the  painter  Ingres,  and  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  "down"  with  him,  as  he  stepped  with  mincing 
tread  among  the  mourners.  It  was  snowing,  and  he  asked  a  group 
who  paused  on  the  pavement  near  the  church,  "Shall  we  not  seek 
a  porte-cochere?" — while  the  attendants,  opining  that  the  flakes 
would  have  uncommon  difficulty  in  finding  him  out,  laughed  at 
his  anxiety  even  among  the  solemnities  of  the  occasion.  Such  is 
the  pleasant  little  lad,  always  mild,  neat  and  conciliating,  who  goes 
into  his  studio,  seizes  his  enormous  brushes,  and  turns  out  for  us 
the  almost  Michael-Angelesque  composition  of  "  Rizpah."  Ah!  in 
the  presence  of  so  impressive  a  work  we  scarcely  think  of  the 
physical  means  by  which  it  was  created.  We  think  of  the  idea 
alone,  the  terrible  ordeal  of  constancy  and  maternity.  Our  engraving 
on  page  106  gives  a  vivid  conception  of  Mr.  Becker's  subject, 
though  the  imagination  has  to  expand  the  cut  to  the  size  of  nature, 
on  which  scale  the  original  is  painted,  to  get  the  full  vigor  of  the 
tragedy. 

The  seven  sons  of  Saul,  whom  David  delivered  to  the  Gibeonites 
to  be  hanged  to  avert  the  famine,  are  seen  suspended  from  a  lofty 
gibbet,  in  the  evening  of  a  stormy  day.  It  is  the  commencement 
of  their  exposure,  "the  beginning  of  the  harvest,"  and  Rizpah  has 
just  initiated  her  gloomy  watch  against  the  eagles,  which  come 
sailing  toward  the  corpses  from  afar.  Over  her  head  hang  the  fair 
young  bodies  of  her  sons,  Armoni  and  Mephibosheth,  and  the  rest. 
She  is  a  strong  Jewess  heroine,  a  worthy  mate  for  the  giant  Saul, 
and  her  posture  while  she  fights  the  mighty  bird  with  her  club  is 
statuesque  and  grand.  As  she  throws  up  one  massive  arm  as  a 
fence  between  the  aggressor  and  her  dead,  and  looks  into  the 
eagle's  eye  with  a  glance  in  which  grief  is  temporarily  merged  in 
horror  and  repulsion,  we  seem  to  hear  the  hoarse,  desolate  cry 
which  escapes  from  her  parched  mouth  to  scare  the  famished 


RIZPAH  DEFENDING  THE  BODIES  OF  THE  SEVEN  SONS  OF  SAUL. 

By  Gtorge  ttecker. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  107 


creature  from  his  prey.  The  attitudes  of  the  dead  youths  are 
supine,  with  a  languid  and  oriental  grace  even  in  death,  and  the 
curled  Assyrian  beards  of  the  older  ones  contrast  with  the  pitiful 
boyishness  of  the  rest,  while  the  whole  row  of  princes,  tender, 
elegant  and  helpless,  forms  the  strongest  contradiction  to  the  direct, 
rigid,  and  as  it  were  virile  force  of  the  woman.  Another  painter 
might  have  chosen  the  misery,  the  desolation  of  Rizpah's  vigil  for 
his  theme.  But  this  artist  sees,  in  the  whole  long  tragedy,  the 
peculiar  feature  that  it  was  effective.  Rizpah  succeeded  in  defending 
the  relics  of  her  family;  the  incessant  watch,  by  night  as  well  as 
by  day,  from  the  beginning  of  barley  harvest  until  the  rainy  season, 
was  grand  because  it  was  unrelaxed  and  vigilant.  Mr.  Becker, 
therefore,  by  sinking  the  mother's  grief  in  her  fierceness  and  energy, 
has  developed  the  real  sentimental  force  of  the  situation ;  any  quite 
treatment  would  have  lost  it.  He  has  delineated  for  us  the  first 
grand  example  in  history  of  maternal  devotion,  the  Mater  Dolo- 
rosa  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  lines  and  colors  that  leave  an  unfading 
impression. 

For  the  entirely  graceful  and  feminine  figure  of  "The  Reader" — 
engraved  on  page  102— we  are  indebted  to  Professor  Antonio 
Tantardini,  of  Milan.  The  same  artist  exhibits  in  the  principal  room 
of  the  Annex  "The  Bather,"  this  figure  proves  the  fact  which  has 
become  proverbial  among  sculptors,  that  there  are  very  few  poses  in 
nature  for  the  artist  to  select  from.  Immense  have  been  the  number 
of  "Bathers". contributed  to  art  by  sculptors  and  painters  in  want  of 
a  theme,  the  plain  reason  being  that  the  situation  of  reading  is  one 
of  the  very  few  in  which  a  modern  female  subject  can  be  treated 
without  any  violation  of  modesty  of  character.  The  artist,  impelled 
to  make  a  study  of  nude  flesh — after  all,  the  worthiest  exercise 
afforded  by  nature  to  the  craft — can  hardly  find  a  situation  in 
modern  life  which  affords  him  the  needed  revelation,  without  the 
sacrifice  of  womanly  character.  The  variations,  too,  which  may 
be  played  on  this  delicate  theme  are  infinite.  Let  the  careless 
reader,  who  is  disposed  to  pass  by  Tantardini's  fine  work  with  the 
hasty  remark,  "Only  another  bathing  girl!"  turn  again  to  the 


io8 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,   1876. 


.7 HE  ART  GALLERY.  TOQ 


glowinp*  and  delicate  episode  of  Musidora,  in  Thomson's  "Seasons" 

O  O  l  > 

as  he  reads  for  one  more  time  this  gentle  pastoral,  which  the  Italian 
sculptor  seems  to  have  been  familliar  with,  he  will  comprehend 
the  resources  which  art  can  find  in  the  topic  of  modesty  taken  at 
a  disadvantage. 

Another  sculptor  of  Milan,  Signor  Egidio  Pozzi,  contributes  to 
the  Exhibition  a  sitting  male  figure,  supposed  to  represent  Michael 
Angelo  in  his  youth.  We  present  an  engraving  of  this  work  on 
page  131.  The  Milanese  artist  represents  his  immortal  fellow- 
sculptor  at  that  period  of  his  boyhood  when  he  studied  all  day 
long  in  the  garden  of  Lcrenzo  de  Medici,  "  the  Magnificent,"  in 
Florence,  among  the  treasures  of  antique  statuary  which  the  growing 
taste  of  such  collections  had  then  amassed  in  that  retreat.  It  is 
related  that  the  first  original  work  of  the  young  genius  was  a 
face  of  an  antique  satyr,  or  faun — one  of  those  grotesques  which7 
the  architecture  of  the  period  demanded  in  abundance  for  the 
decoration  of  keystones  and  lintels.  The  greater  the  extravagance 
of  expression,  the  richer  the  satisfaction  of  the  architect,  and  the 
artists  of  the  time  exhausted  their  fancy  in  giving  the  look  of 
leering,  fantastic  intelligence  to  these  stone  faces  which  peered 
over  arches  and  portals,  and  conferred  an  air  of  conscious  slyness 
and  counsel-keeping  on  the  various  apertures  of  an  edifice.  Michael 
Angelo's  first  effort  was  as  great  a  hit  as  the  mature  efforts  of 
finished  sculptors  in  this  line,  and  the  row  of  mascarons,  or  gro- 
tesque faces  made  by  Jean  Goujon  for  the  Pont  Neuf,  in  Paris, 
contained  no  example  more  expressive  than  this  first  specimen, 
which  had  been  made  by  the  elfish  stripling  in  Florence.  "  How- 
ever, your  faun  is  wrong,"  said  Lorenzo,  laughing  indulgently  over 
the  boy's  shoulder.  '•  He  is  old  and  has  cracked  many  a  hard  nut 
with  those  grinning  teeth  ;  he  ought  to  have  lost  some  of  them 
by  this  time."  When  the  Magnifico  passed  next  into  the  garden, 
young  Michael  had  knocked  out  a  tooth,  and  the  patron,  pleased 
with  his  own  cleverness  and  the  lad's,  was  unreserved  in  his  praise 
of  a  work  which  now  recorded  a  thought  of  his  own  within  one 
of  Michael  Angelo's.  The  figure  sent  to  us  by  Signor  Pozzi  is 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." \ 


FELLAH  WOMAN. 

I'y  Ch.  Landelle. 


[The  Art  Gallery, 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  in 


one  of  intellectual  delicacy;  it  is  hardly  that  of  the  fiery  young 
goblin  who  drew  his  own  face,  with  pointed  ears  as  a  satyr,  before  he 
was  twenty-one,  and  who,  in  this  same  garden  of  Florence,  so 
taunted  Torregiano  that  the  latter  marked  him  for  life  with  a 
broken  nose.  It  is  a  representation  of  the  ethereal,  creative  part 
of  Michael  Angelo's  character.  The  lad  before  us  seems  likely  to 
grow  up  into  a  sort  of  saraphic  being,  more  like  a  Raphael  than 
like  the  gusty  and  morose  recluse  who  carved  the  Moses.  Yet,  it 
is  undeniable  that  this  lonely  man  had  his  side  of  ineffable  tender- 
ness, and  there  is  artistic  justification  for  the  artist  who  chooses  to 
represent  that  phase  of  his  nature  on  which  his  contemporaries 
were  continually  harping,  when  they  played  upon  his  name  and  said 
that  his  works  were  executed  by  an  "Angelo." 

We  are  warned  that  space  is  scarce,  and  that  matter  must  yield 
to  illustrations.  Much  must  therefore  be  left  unsaid  about  many 
of  the  engravings  which  embellish  these  pages,  and  thousands  of 
the  works  of  art  will  forever  remain  uncopied  by  lens,  pen 
or  pencil,  and  more  will  remain  unwritten.  An  effort  in  the 
last  direction  was  made  in  the  form  of  a  hand-book  to  the  Art 
Gallery — a  simple  catalogue  with  very  brief  descriptions,  but  a  first 
glance  at  the  pages  in  which  we  found  Leutze's  "Washington 
Crossing  the  Delaware"  credited  to  Sully,  satisfied  us  that  we  need 
go  no  further  in  our  researches  in  that  mine. 

A  work  of  considerable  dignity  and  elegance,  and  one  deserving 
respectful  criticism  apart  from  the  mere  stupefied  admiration  accorded 
to  its  gigantic  size,  is  the  colossal  group  of  sculpture  entitled 
"America,"  set  up  in  the  great  Central  Hall  of  the  Memorial 
Building.  Besides  being  an  interesting  reminder  of  a  superb 
monument,  it  is  noteworthy  as  probably  the  largest  ceramic  work 
ever  made,  except  those  Chinese  towers  confessedly  put  together 
out  of  small  fragments.  However  many  may  be  the  segments  in 
which  the  "America"  group  is  cast,  they  must  severally  be 
enormously  large,  and  in  their  grouping  they  produce  an  effect  of 
perfect  unity,  so  adroitly  are  their  joints  concealed.  The  memorial 
recently  erected  to  Prince  Albert,  in  Hyde  Park,  London,  has 


Great  h.xhibition,  1876."} 


HARVEST  SCENE. 
By  E.  Laporte. 


|  The  Art  Gallery. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  113 


occupied  the  leading  sculptors  of  England  for  many  years.  The 
podium  or  central  mass,  covered  by  Mr.  Armstead  with  friezes  of 
the  principal  poets,  artists  and  musicians,  is  approached  by  flights 
of  steps  on  its  four  sides,  the  whole  forming  a  vast  platform,  at 
whose  corners  are  pedestals,  quite  remote  from  the  central  edifice, 
and  respectively  crowned  with  groups  of  sculpture.  "Asia"  is  one 
of  these  groups,  executed  by  J.  H.  Foley;  the  late  P.  Macdowell 
designed  the  group  of  "  Europe;"  the  veteran  John  Bell,  whose  works, 
says  Mr.  S.  C.  Hall,  "have  long  given  him  a  leading  position  in 
his  profession,"  is  the  inventor  of  the  elaborate  allegory  dedicated 
to  our  own  country.  The  quarters  of  the  globe  are  backed  by 
other  groups  of  sculpture  representing  human  achievement:  as, 
"Agriculture,"  by  W.  C.  Marshall;  "Engineering,"  by  J.  Lawlor; 
"Commerce,"  by  J.  Thornycroft,  and  "Manufactures,"  by  H. 
Weekes. 

The  collection  of  figures  representing  "America,"  which  are 
worthy  the  attention  needed  to  unravel  their  symbolism,  may  be 
thus  described.  America  herself,  the  central  and  all-embracing  type 
of  the  continent,  rides  the  bison  in  the  centre  of  the  cortege.  Her 
right  hand  holds  the  spear,  her  left  the  shield,  decorated  with  the 
beaver,  the  eagle  and  other  Indian  signs ;  her  tiara  of  eagle  feathers 
sweeps  backward  from  her  forehead  and  trails  over  her  shoulders ; 
she  is  the  aboriginal  earth-goddess,  depending  upon  kindlier  forces 
to  illumine  her  path  and  guide  her  steps.  This  office  is  assumed 
by  the  figure  representing  the  United  States;  the  serene  virgin, 
self-confident  and  austere,  wearing  the  lineaments  of  the  Spirit  of 
Liberty,  belted  with  stars,  and  leading  the  earth  goddess  with  a 
sceptre  on  whose  tip  shines  that  planet  of  empire  which  "westward 
takes  its  way,"  is  the  effigy  of  our  own  happy  country.  At  her 
feet  lies  the  Indian's  quiver,  with  but  one  or  two  arrows  left  within 
it.  Behind  the  figure  of  the  Republic  is  that  of  Canada,  a  pure 
and  fresh-faced  damsel,  wearing  furs,  and  pressing  the  rose  of 
England  to  her  bosom.  The  figure  seated  on  a  rock,  in  front,  is 
Mexico,  represented  by  an  Aztec  in  his  radiating  crown  of  feathers, 
with  the  flint  axe,  curiously  carved,  in  his  hand;  a  corresponding 


j  14  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


sitting  personage  on  the  other  side,  is  South  America,  a  Spanish- 
faced  cavalier  in  the  broad-brimmed  sombrero  and  gracefully 
folded  poncho.  These  are  the  principal  features  of  the  lofty  and 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876"  J 


VANITY  FAIR. 

By  F.  Barzaghi. 


\The  Art  Gaicerv 


elaborate  group  which  casts  its  shadow  over  the  floor  of  Memorial 
Hall.  The  artist  has  worked  in  such  evident  sympathy  with  and 
admiration  for  the  Spirit  of  American  institutions  that  he  deserves 


THE  AR  T  GALLER  Y.  115 

the  most  gracious  recognition  of  this  country;  the  original  of  this 
mighty  group,  beheld  by  all  who  pass  under  the  marble  arch 
and  stroll  towards  the  Serpentine,  is  a  perpetual  appeal  for  Con- 
stitutional Liberty,  as  we  understand  it;  and  the  lesson  taught 
by  those  sister  statues,  who,  though  crownless,  subdue  the  rugged 
forces  of  the  West,  is  not  lost  upon  the  thronging  citizens  who 
gaze  upon  them.  The  effect  of  the  group  as  we  see  it,  in  the 
pleasant  earth-color  of  Messrs.  Doulton's  terra  cotta,  is  quite 
unique — something  more  exquisite  and  piquant  than  that  of  white 
marble,  with  which  the  eye  becomes  satiated  after  a  long  course 
of  civic  monuments. 

English  rustic  life  is  well-depicted  in  Constable's  painting  of 
"The  Lock,"  which  is  a  piece  of  good  fortune  for  us  to  keep 
for  awhile  in  America.  The  importance  of  John  Constable's 
influence  and  example  cannot  possibly  be  over-estimated  in  the 
progress  of  landscape  art  throughout  England  and  the  Continent. 
His  effect  on  art  is  in  fact  considerably  greater  than  that  of 
Turner,  because,  while  Turner's  individuality  cannot  be  imitated 
to  any  advantage,  the  discoveries  of  Constable  are  not  altogether 
uncopiable.  He  was  born  at  East  Bergholt,  in  Suffolk,  in  1776, 
and  died  at  his  home  in  Charlotte  Street,  London,  on  the  first 
of  April,  1837,  with  Southey's  "Cowper,"  which  he  had  been  read- 
ing an  hour  before  his  death,  lying  at  the  bed-head  on  a  table. 
Constable  found  landscape  composition  enthralled  in  the  noble  for- 
mality of  Gainsborough  and  Wilson;  by  paying  attention  to  nature, 
and  not  to  any  school,  he  invented  a  manner  of  his  own,  expressed 
certain  phases  as  they  had  never  been  expressed  before,  and  left 
behind  him  a  body  of  works  which  were  the  code  of  a  new  faith 
in  art.  The  mannered  landscapes  of  his  predecessor,  Wilson,  in 
England,  have  just  the  same  relation  to  real  scenery  that  the  man- 
nered descriptions  of  Pope  and  Shenstone  have  to  actual  effects ; 
it  is  landscape  gardening,  not  landscape;  you  are  among  groves 
that  "frown,"  and  "horrid"  rocks,  and  "nodding"  mountains,  and 
all  those  other  curiosities  that  are  never  found  in  nature  by  those 
who  really  love  her,  but  are  invariably  lent  to  her  by  artists  of  the 


n6  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


drop-curtain  sort;  at  the  same  time,  on  the  Continent,  the  grand  but 


"  Tht  Great  Exhibition,  1876. ']  ORPHEUS.  F  The  Art  Gallery 

Ky  P.  Guarnerio, 

baleful  influence    of   Poussm  had    set  all  the  world  to    formalizing 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  117 

nature,  and  that  of  Claude  had  established  his  precedent  of  artful 
symmetry  among  those  who  could  never  reach  his  golden  air.  It 
was  for  Constable  to  charm  away  the  wholp  world  from  the  shrines 
of  these  divinities,  and  they  are  empty  to  this  very  day.  His 
fresh  and  flashing  style,  so  true  to  a  single  aspect  of  European 
climate,  set  every  painter  to  looking,  not  upon  antique  bas-reliefs 
and  Italian  ruins,  but  right  into  the  open,  windy,  showery,  capri- 
cious sky,  and  among  the  dewy  grasses  underfoot.  He  made  the 
lush  and  humid  leaves  twinkle  with  sense  of  growth  and  stirring 
life  and  mounting  sap.  He  sent  the  scudding  clouds  flashing  and 
darkening  across  the  changeable  sky ;  he  swept  this  sky  with  rocking 
branches  and  tufted  ripples  of  foliage.  Although  not  altogether 
unappreciated  during  his  lifetime,  his  fame  has  immensly  increased 
since  his  death;  along  with  "Old  Crome"  and  Bonington,  he  enjoys 
a  sort  of  posthumous  elevation  to  the  peerage ;  his  slightest  works 
are  sought  out  like  gold,  and  even  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre,  so 
very  chary  of  credit  to  English  art,  has  recently  received  with  pride 
two  or  three  of  his  pictures — one  of  them  a  very  noble  study  of  a 
sea-beach  swept  with  shadows  from  a  storm — and  hung  them  in 
positions  of  honor.  He  is  the  true  progenitor  of  such  eminent  land- 
scapists  as  Troyon,  Rousseau,  Fran9ais,  Dupre  and  even  Daubigny 
—some  of  whom  find  their  fortune  in  appropriating  a  mere  corner 
of  his  mantle.  "Among  all  landscape-painters,  ancient  or  modern," 
says  the  celebrated  C.  R.  Leslie,  "  no  one  carries  me  so  entirely  to 
nature;  and  I  can  truly  say  that  since  I  have  known  his  works  1 
have  never  looked  at  a  tree  or  the  sky  without  being  reminded 
of  him."  In  his  personal  character  Constable  was  winning,  and 
conquered  the  most  unpromising  material  to  his  allegiance;  he 
would  say  to  a  London  cabby,  "  Now,  my  good  fellow,  drive'  me  a 
shilling  fare  towards  so  and  so,  and  don't  cheat  yourself."  Con- 
stable's picture  at  the  Exposition,  generously  lent  by  the  Royal 
Academy,  is  an  important  example.  One  of  his  flashing  skies, 
summing  up  the  whole  quarrel  between  storm  and  sunshine,  occu- 
pies the  upper  half;  against  this  lean  a  couple  of  vigorous,  riotous- 
looking  trees,  half-drunk  with  potations  of  superabundant  English 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876. 


t  Gallery. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  119 


moisture.  Both  these  features  are  modelled:  the  sky  shows  as  much 
light  and  shade  as  a  study  of  sculpture,  and  the  trees  are  moulded 
into  their  natural  dome-like  forms,  with  play  of  light  and  shade 
on  the  mass ;  in  such  a  scene,  an  inferior  painter  is  tempted  either 
to  keep  the  sky  very  thin,  in  order  to  get  it  well  back  from  the 
invading  trees,  or  else,  if  the  sky  has  much  variegation,  to  turn 
his  trees  into  a  mere  dark  screen,  perfectly  flat,  so  as  easily  to 
insure  the  desired  contrast  and  difference  of  values.  Constable 
boldly  moulds  his  clouds,  and  vigorously  lights  the  sunward  edges 
of  his  trees,  trusting  to  his  close  copy  work  of  nature  to  get  his 
firmament  fifty  miles  away.  A  man  in  a  boat  is  guiding  the  prow 
by  means  of  a  rope  passing  around  a  post  through  the  brimming 
reservoir  of  the  lock,-  which  the  care-taker  is  raising  with  a  lever 
applied  to  the  gate.  Beyond  stretches  a  level  view  of  a  flat  country, 
of  which  a  considerable  stretch  is  commanded  from  the  elevation 
of  the  race  bank.  In  spirit  and  idea  it  is  all  English — homely, 
familiar,  dew-bathed  and  tender.  It  reminds  us,  in  temper,  feeling 
and  gratitude,  of  the  lines  in  Matthew  Arnold's  "Thyrsis": 

"Runs  it  not  here,  the  track  by  Childsworth  Farm, 
Up  past  the  wood,  to  where  the  elm-tree  crowns 

The  hill  behind  whose  ridge  the  sunset  flames  ? 
The  signal-elm  that  looks  on  Isley  Downs, 

The  vale,  the  three  lone  wears,  the  youthful  Thames?" 

In  the  crowded  vegetation  with  which  he  fills  the  foreground  of 
this  picture,  Constable  is  all  himself.  Without  pedantic  analysis 
of  forms  and  genera,  without  that  close  attention  to  vegetable 
minutiae  which  invariably  turns  landscape  art  into  botany,  and 
destroys  the  higher  truths  of  atmosphere,  the  painter  gives  with 
great  success  the  vital  principle  of  weed-growth — the  confusion, 
the  struggle  for  light  and  air,  the  soft  brushing  of  leaf  against  leaf 
surcharged  with  "moisture.  This  ardent  study  of  a  great  inventor's, 
"The  Lock,"  is  twice  noteworthy:  first  as  it  hangs,  as  a  hit  at 
nature  taken  on  the  fly,  and  second  as  a  document,  showing  the 
invasion  of  realism  into  academic  art  early  in  this  century.  It  is 


I2O 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


in  some  of  its  qualities  a  resume  of  the  advice  which  West  gave 


1  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876"] 


ANDROMACHE. 

By  Matt. 


\TheArt  Ga  fiery 


Constable  in  his  youth  and  which  it  was  not  his  own  cue  to  act 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  121 

upon.  "Always  remember,  sir,  that  light  and  shadow  never  stand 
still"  Hamerton  quoting  this  proverb,  says,  "  It  thus  became  one 
of  Constable's  main  purposes  to  make  people  feel  the  motions  of 
cloud-shadows  and  gleams  of  light  stealing  upon  objects  and 
brightening  before  we  are  quite  aware  of  it." 

We  cannot  leave  the  English  Gallery  without  having  another 
glance  at  the  several  pictures  of  Mr.  Tadema's.  The  "Vintage" 
is  of  all  these  the  most  important.  It  represents  the  solemn 
dedication  to  Bacchus  of  the  first  fruits  of  the  wine-press,  selecting 
only  the' more  elevated  and  dignified  features  of  the  ceremony — 
those  deeply  symbolic  features,  connected  with  the  branches  and 
fruits  of  the  vine,  the  progress  of  the  deity  as  a  conqueror  of  the 
East,  and  his  descent  into  hell,  which  touched  the  hearts  of  the 
early  Christians,  so  that  the  Bacchic  mystery  was  admitted  as  a 
type  of  the  Christian,  and  the  daughter  of  the  first  Christian 
emperor  was  buried  in  a  casket  enwreathed  with  Bacchic  grapes 
and  symbols,  carved  in  enduring  porphyry.  In  Mr.  Tadema's 
exquisite  picture  we  see  the  sacred  procession  winding  into  a  Roman 
temple  to  offer  homage  to  the  planter  of  the  vine.  A  beautiful 
priestess,  crowned  with  grapes  and  holding  a  torch,  advances  toward 
the  statue  of  the  god  at  the  left ;  turning  her  lovely  face  to  the 
procession  that  follows  her,  she  awaits  the  arrival  of  the  offerings, 
while  near  the  shrine  some  ardent  priests  with  panther-skins  tied 
around  their  throats,  wave  the  cups  of  libation  in  ecstatic  expectancy. 
Three  flute-girls,  with  the  double  pipe  bound  to  the  mouth  of  each, 
a  pair  of  dancers  with  tambourines,  and  a  procession  solemnly 
bearing  wine-jars  and  grapes,  advance  along  the  platform,  whose 
steps  are  seen  covered  with  ascending  worshippers  and  joyous  Romans 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  through  the  colonnade  of  the  temple.  The 
perfect  execution  of  a  pythos  or  earthen  wine-tub,  enwreathed  with 
the  Bacchic  ivy,  and  planted  near  the  tripod  in  the  centre  of  the 
scene,  attracts  attention.  The  grace  and  elegance  of  the  chief 
priestess  are  positively  enchanting.  She  forms  as  she  stands  a 
white  statue  of  perfect  loveliness,  quite  outdazzling  the  Bearded 
Indian  Bacchus  whose  marble  purity  sheds  a  light  around  the 


122 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  123 

shrine.  The  most  unexpected  success  of  the  artist,  however,  is 
that  sense  of  religious  calm  and  solemn  gratitude  which  he  has 
managed  to  diffuse  over  a  ceremony  dedicated  to  such  a  power  as 
the  spirit  of  the  grape.  Everything  shows  that  the  symbol  as 
accepted  by  the  early  Church  was  most  prominent  in  his  mind, 
and  that  he  wished  to  represent  the  parallelism  between  the  True 
Vine  and  its  imperfect  type.  The  worshippers,  elated  by  a  really 
religious  rapture,  proceed  to  the  offering  with  all  the  decorum  of 
the  Christian  agape  or  love-feast,  and  the  ornaments  of  the  temple 
—pictures  and  votive  images — hang  upon  the  columns  precisely 
like  the  "  stations"  and  ex-voto  offerings  of  a  modern  Roman  church. 
The  technical  qualities  of  the  painting  are  admirable ;  the  action 
and  character  of  the  figures  are  completely  Roman;  the  texture 
of  the  different  marbles  is  felicitously  given,  and  the  silvery  flood 
of  light  and  air  deluging  the  temple  successful  in  the  extreme. 

We  would  like  to  dwell  with  greater  fulness  on  the  works  of 
this  artist,  both  because  he  reveals  and  teaches  so  much,  and  because 
a  certain  austerity  and  simplicity  in  his  style  keep  him  a  little  above 
the  comprehension  of  the  vulgar.  The  limits  of  this  work,  how- 
ever, have  been  strained  to  admit  even  so  imperfect  a  glimpse  of 
his  merits,  and  we  must  pass  to  other  subjects.  We  cannot  quite 
omit  mention,  however,  of  "The  Mummy,"  conspicuous  by  its 
strangeness  and  antique  truth,  in  whch  the  interior  of  an  Alex- 
andrian palace,  filled  with  funereal  preparations,  is  treated  in  oil 
with  all  the  luminous  limpidity  of  water-color;  nor  of  "The 
Picture,"  in  which  a  Roman  painter's  shop  is  realized  for  us;  nor 
of  "The  History  of  an  Honest  Wife,"  a  quaint  and  moving  story 
connected  with  the  early  Christianization  of  France.  It  is  the 
peculiar  distinction  of  Mr.  Tadema  to  turn  out  in  every  picture  a 
composition  utterly  unlike  anything  that  has  ever  been  painted 
before.  The  intense  devotion  of  his  mind  to  archaeological  research 
is  rewarded  by  the  unearthing  of  quantities  of  truths  so  old  that 
they  have  the  air  of  novelty;  the  texture  and  pattern  of  ancient 
garments,  the  ornaments  of  buildiags,  in  mixed  transitional  periods, 
the  habits  of  a  vanished  civilization,  are  made  to  flash  on  the  eye 


T24 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION, 


like  a  revelation.     Not  a  shoe,  not  a  finger-ring,  but  is  of  the  epoch 


•The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}  THE  ERRING  WIFE. 

Bronze  by  Gatnbos. 


[The  Art  Gallery. 


represented;   the  monstrous  frizzled  wigs  of  the  latter   empresses, 
the  thick  plaited  ones  of  Egyptian  kings,  the  tasteless  cumber  of 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  125 

Pompeian  or  Roman  colonial  architecture,  are  set  down  remorse- 
lessly, with  a  love  of  the  bizarre  that  sometimes  verges  upon 
caricature.  With  all  this  book-learning,  his  style  is  generally  direct, 
limpid  and  transparent  to  a  high  degree ;  the  simple  sweetness  of 
his  coloring,  and  the  soft  tide  of  air  that  is  felt  to  play  easily  through 
his  interiors,  are  as  perfect  as  in  the  work  of  the  most  ignorant 
painter  of  natural  appearances,  who  ever  confined  his  copy-work  to 
his  "impressions." 

One  of  the  rooms  on  the  north  side  of  Memorial  Hall  was 
constantly  crowded  by  admirers  of  Wagner's  "Chariot  Race,"  now 
so  well  known  to  the  people  by  means  of  engravings.  When 
Romulus  induced  the  Sabine  women  to  come  to  Rome,  it  was  to 
see  the  chariot-racing  that  those  ladies  trusted  themselves  in  the 
city  of  the  "Sanctuary,"  and  this,  according  to  the  legend,  was  the 
first  circus,  or  exhibition  for  horse-racing,  ever  held.  Another 
legend  informs  us  that  L.  Tarquinius,  about  600  B.  c.,  commemo- 
rated his  success  in  arms  by  an  exhibition  of  races  and  athletic 
sports  in  the  Murcian  Valley,  in  which  temporary  platforms  were 
erected  by  individuals  for  personal,  family  or  friends'  use.  These 
platforms  surrounding  the  course  gave  place,  before  the  death  of 
Tarquinius,  to  a  permanent  building  with  regular  tiers  of  "seats  in 
the  manner  of  a  theatre ;  to  this  the  name  of  "  Circus  Maximus" 
was  subsequently  given,  but  it  was  more  generally  known  as  the 
Circus,  because  it  surpassed  in  extent  and  splendor  all  other  similar 
buildings.  A  few  masses  of  rubble-work  in  a  circular  form  are 
now  shown  the  visitor  in  Rome,  as  all  that  remains  of  the  ever- 
famous  Circus  Maximus;  and  although  there  were  a  considerable 
number  of  buildings  of  a  like  nature  in  Rome,  they  are  all  destroyed 
now,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  one  on  the  Via  Appia,  called 
the  Circus  of  Caracalla,  which  is  in  a  good  state  of  preservation. 

In  the  chariot  race,  each  chariot  was  drawn  by  four  horses; 
four,  six  and  sometimes  eight  chariots  started  at  one  time;  the 
charioteer,  standing  in  the  car,  had  the  reins  passed  around  his 
back :  this  enabled  him  to  throw  all  his  weight  against  the  horses 
by  leaning  backward;  but  this  rendered  his  situation  dangerous  in 


>Th€  Great  Exhibition,  1876. "] 


DURING  THE  SERMON. 

£>  ri:tro  Mic'-is. 


[  The  French  Gallery. 


THE  ART  GALLERY.  127 

case  of  an  upset,  occasionaly  resulting  in  serious  accidents  or  death ; 
to  avoid  this  peril,  if  possible,  each  driver  carried  a  knife  at  his 
waist  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the  reins. 

The  foremost  driver  in  Wagner's  picture  has  an  air  of  mad 
hilarity  and  gratification  in  his  face,  and  even  in  his  whole  bearing; 
and  as  he  seems  to  wish  to  cast  his  eyes  to  see  how  much  ahead 
he  is  of  the  driver  on  his  left,  who  is  imbued  with  carefulness 
and  fixity  of  purpose,  he  little  recks  that  one  6f  his  horses  has 
reared  in  excitement,  and  may  at  any  moment  cause  the  loss  of 
the  race  and  imperil  the  lives  of  all  concerned. 

The  enthusiasm  of  the  Romans  for  the  races  exceeded  all 
bounds.  Lists  of  the  horses  with  their  names  and  colors,  and 
those  of  the  drivers,  were  circulated,  and  heavy  bets  made.  The 
winning  drivers  were  liberally  rewarded  with  considerable  sums  of 
money,  so  that  many  of  these  charioteers,  according  to  Juvenal, 
were  very  wealthy. 

In  Wagner's  delineation  of  "The  Chariot  Race,"  he  has  embraced 
as  many  of  the  prominent  features  of  an  ancient  circus  as  could 
artistically  be  brought  within  the  canvas.  To  the  left  of  us  are 
the  Emperor  and  his  household;  opposite  to  this  imperial  group, 
on  the  low  wall,  may  be  the  president,  or  judge,  and  a  number 
of  spectators;  near  the  ground  of  this  low  wall  there  is  a  grating: 
this  undoubtedly  is  designed  by  the  artist  to  indicate  the  proximity 
of  the  officiating  priests'  chambers.  A  portion  of  the  pillar,  on 
which  were  placed  the  conical  balls,  is  behind  this  group,  and  a 
little  further  back  is  shown  the  cylindrical  goal.  The  immense 
space  between  this  and  the  Triumphal  Gateway,  and  the  great 
height  of  the  building  with  its  myriads  of  people,  are  not 
exaggerations,  for  according  to  very  early  writers  this  circus 
was  several  times  enlarged  until,  at  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar, 
it  was  over  eighteen  hundred  feet  long  (the  length  of  the  Main 
Building  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition,)  six  hundred  feet  wide,  and 
capable  of  containing  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand 
spectators.  A  further  idea  of  the  size  of  the  Circus  Maximus  is 
formed  by  comparing  it  with  the  capacity  of  the  Coliseum  at  Rome, 


128  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

which  was   capable  of  holding   only  about   eighty-seven  thousand 
people. 

Times  are  indeed  changed  since  Charles  V  picked  up  the 
brush  that  had  accidentally  dropped  from  Titian's  hand;  since 
Philip  used  to  let  himself  in  at  all  hours  with  a  private  key  to 
the  studio  of  Valasquez.  Then  kings  and  the  noblest  personages 
and  the  wealthy  holders  of  Church  property  were  the  sole  patrons  of 
the  artist.  Since  then,  even  thrones  have  become  visible  types  of 
mutability;  and  the  exchange  of  royal  estates  for  limited  civil  lists 
often  leaves  the  sovereign  without  the  power  to  do  what  he  would 
for  art.  The  noblest  personages  of  a  later  day  are  riot  always 
the  wealthiest;  the  splendid  endowments  of  medieval  churches 
have  been  diverted  to  other  less  exclusive  objects;  and  thus  the 
artist  has  to  look  elsewhere  for  his  encouragement,  his  means  of 
livelihood,  and  his  fame.  The  sovereign  people  are  now  the  great 
patrons  of  art.  National  Galleries  and  Museums  possess  its  choicest 
examples;  private  persons  of  easy  fortune  furnish  their  houses 
with  pictures  as  a.  matter  of  course.  Art-unions  distribute  works 
of  art,  and  their  reproductions,  among  a  large  public;  the  pencils 
of  painters  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  illustrating  books  and 
periodicals  with  greater  pecuniary,  profit  than  a  few  pictures  could 
secure.  In  humbler  homes,  engravings,  copied  from  celebrated 
pictures,  suggest  at  least  the  ideas  of  the  master,  when  they  do 
not  reflect  it  with  power  of  another  sort,  as  they  not  unfrequently 
do.  Zinc-engraving,  wood-engraving,  etching  and  photographic 
reproduction  are  busy  popularizing  works,  which  in  another  age 
could  have  been  known  only  to  a  few  who  either  lived  in  the 
neighborhood,  or  had  undertaken  a  distant  journey,  perhaps  in  order 
to  visit  and  admire  them. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  what  effect  is  produced  by  so 
radical  a  change  on  the  quality  of  art,  and  on  the  discriminating  tastes 
of  the  people  ?  It  is  a  very  important  one,  and  not  very  easy  to 
answer  off-hand.  Nothing,  indeed,  can  be  plainer  than  that  some 
kinds  of  art  have  in  consequence  of  the  change,  ceased  to  be  inquired 
for,  and  therefore  ceases  to  be  supplied.  Thus,  for  example,  high 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


ARREST  OF  LUTHER, 

By  Harrach. 


{The  Art  Gallery. 


1 30  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

religious  art  has  simply  disappeared,  as  utterly  as  the  Dodo  or  the 
lost  pleiad.  The  remark  applies  to  no  one  country  in  particular. 
It  is  universal.  There  is  no  use  in  concealing  the  fact,  whatever 
may  be  its  proximate  cause.  In  Italy  and  Spain,  high  religious 
art  is  dead,  quite  as  much  as  in  France,  which  never  possessed 
much  of  it,  or  in  its  best  form;  or  as  in  England,  which  never 
possessed  it  at  all. 

As  the  principal  patron  of  art  is  now  the  sovereign  people,  it 
follows,  from  their  many-headed  character,  that  portraiture  is  an 
engrossing  branch  of  popular  art.  Here,  at  least  as  to  quantity, 
the  demand  is  abundantly  supplied.  As  to  quality,  that  is  a  different 
matter.  A  cursory  glance  around  an  Academy  exhibition  leaves 
the  impression  that  it  is  all  portrait.  It  is  not  of  the  likeness  that 
any  reasonable  person  can  complain.  If  such  a  thing  were  possible, 
the  likeaess  is  often  only  too  perfect.  The  coarse,  perky,  self- 
asserting,  purse-proud  air  of  the  sitter  is  set  forth  with  a  truth- 
fulness amounting  to  the  keenest  satire.  There  is  no  attempt  to 
fine  down  imperfections,  to  idealize  too  realistic  features.  A 
"  staring  likeness"  is  probably  all  the  sitter  asked  for  in  return 
for  his  or  her  money;  and  it  is  provided  beyond  cavil.  Or,  taking 
another  common  class  of  portraits,  there  is  a  face,  and  two  cor- 
responding hands,  fairly  painted,  and  connected  together  by  a  loose 
bag  of  clothes,  without  solidity  or  form  or  roundness;  but  just 
as  they  hung  on  the  lay  figure.  It  all  has  an  air  of  haste,  sug- 
gesting so  many  sittings  for  so  many  dollars.  A  keen  observer 
of  contemporary  life  remarks:  "It  is  trade,  not  art;  the  aim  is  to 
produce  money,  not  a  painting.  The  terrible  rule  which  infects 
all  production,  the  rule  of  small  profits  and  quick  returns,  is  the 
death-blow  of  art.  It  is  the  rule  that  makes  our  painters  tricky 
and  vulgar,  our  literature  flashy  and  untrustworthy,  and  our  music 
popular  in  the  worst  sense.  That  is  not  the  way  great  things  are 
done.  It  is  not  the  way  our  fathers  did  even  little  things."  The 
judgment  is  severe;  but,  if  strictly  limited  to  the  domain  of  art,  we 
think  it  neither  too  severe  nor  yet  inconsistent  with  a  firm  belief 
in  the  general  progress  of  human  affairs  towards  improvement 


THE  ART  GALLERY. 


and    the    realization    of   the   maxim:   "The  greatest   happiness  for 


'  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." \ 


the  greatest  number." 


MICHAEL  ANGELO. 

By  Fozzi. 


[  The  Art  Gallery. 


132  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

We  might  extend  our  remarks  into  other  departments  of  art, 
as,  for  example,  into  landscape  and  genre.  It  will  suffice,  however, 
to  say  that  nothing  appears  more  directly  calculated  to  raise  the 
character  of  modern  painting  in  every  department  than  the  pro- 
motion of  sound  art-education  among  the  masses  of  the  people. 
To  know  a  good  picture  from  an  indifferent  one  is  not  a  natural 
gift,  nor  like  one  of  the  senses,  the  inheritance  of  all  persons 
alike.  It  must  be  acquired  and  cultivated  by  studying  good  pictures. 
To  this  end  museums  of  art  works,  lectures  on  art  at  our  Academies, 
directly  point.  The  same  end,  also,  is  powerfully  served  by  the 
liberality  of  art-collectors,  who  permit  the  public  to  inspect  their 
treasures  of  art.  Education  of  the  public  eye  and  taste  will  soon 
react  on  the  painters.  Appreciation  stimulates  to  higher  efforts ; 
intelligent  and  discriminating  criticism  exerts  a  wholesome  and 
corrective  influence  on  the  excentricities  of  genius.  And  while  the 
discriminating  critic  exercises  his  functions  of  "discerning  the 
glorious  from  the  base,"  there  is  no  one  more  ready  than  he  to 
uncover  and  worship,  the  moment  he  recognizes  the  presence  of 
one  of  the  mighty  masters  ot  the  pencil,  who  have  received,  how 
or  whence  no  one  can  tell  or  imagine,  the  rare  power  of  repre- 
senting what  they  see,  and  much  more  than  they  see.  Like 
poetry  or  music,  in  its  highest  form,  art  is  "a  power  that  comes 
and  goes  like  a  dream;"  it  is  a  hint  of  the  eternal  beauty  that 
haunts  us  all  through  life,  and  insensibly  draws  us  towards  itself. 
Study  and  practice  no  doubt  develop  the  manual  dexterity,  the 
penetrating  observation  necessary  to  the  artist;  but  the  original 
power  of  reproducing  what  is  seen  or  imagined  in  the  attractive 
forms  of  pure  art  is  inborn  and  incommunicable.  If  a  great  poet 
is  said  to  be  a  precious  gift  of  nature  to  any  nation,  no  less  can 
be  asserted  of  a  great  painter.  Happy  the  nation  that  can  appre- 
ciate his  value  when  he  comes! 


PART    II 


THE    MAIN    BUILDING 


E  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIO 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


IITHOUT  HOSTILITY,  RIVALRY  is  a  definition  at 

once  concise  and  significant  of  the  principle  of  all 
International  Exhibitions.  Here,  by  these  same  three 
words,  is  set  forth  the  true  motive  for  human  action; 
and  in  the  sentiment  which  they  convey  may  be  discerned  the 
existence  of  a  power  capable  of  exercising  the  most  beneficial 
influence  upon  human  life. 

That  aspiring  element  in  the  mind  of  man  which  instinctively 

urges  him — 

"Ever  to  press  on 
To  name  and  fame,  and  highest  excellence/' — 

implies  the  existence  and  the  operation  of  rivalry  as  a  condition 
of  his  being.  Every  man,  in  his  own  strife  and  struggle  to  attain 
superiority,  constitutes  himself  the  rival  of  his  fellows;  and  all 
men  are  conscious  that  in  every  other  man  they  may  see  a  com- 
petitor in  the  common  conflict,  in  which  they  all  alike  are  engaged. 
But  this  universal  rivalry  possesses  a  twofold  nature.  As  it  may 

become  essentially  hostile,  so  also  it  may  continue  to  be  absolutely 

135 


i36 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,   1876. 


; ; 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  137 

without  hostility.  The  aim  and  the  purpose,  indeed,  remain  ever 
the  same.  There  always  exists  the  very  same  strong  impulse  of 
spontaneous  growth,  prompting  and  pressing  men  on  towards  self- 
exaltation.  In  one  case,  however,  the  desired  achievement  is 
sought,  perhaps  altogether,  certainly  in  no  inconsiderable  degree, 
through  the  oppression  and  degradation  of  all  rivals;  and  thus  a 
more  eminent  superiority  elevates  the  successful  competitor,  by 
means  of  what  he  may  have  made  his  own  at  the  cost  and  through 
the  loss  of  others;  while,  in  the  other  case,  the  aspirant  to  ex- 
cellence seeks  to  stand  higher  through  rising  higher.  He  delights 
to  see  others  rising  with  him,  in  their  successes  discerning  only 
fresh  motives  and  more  urgent  stimulants  for  renewed  vigor  in  his 
own  exertions ;  and,  without  relaxing  for  a  single  moment  his  efforts 
to  surpass  those  around  him,  this  man  cordially  encourages  and 
even  aids  his  rivals,  should  they  chance  to  be  able  to  attain  to  a 
position  beside  himself,  or  even  to  rise  above  himself. 

The  fine  rivalry  which  not  only  permits,  but  constrains  rivals 
to  regard  and  to  deal  with  one  another  as  friends,  rarely  can  fail 
to  lead  men  on  to  excel  (or,  at  any  rate,  to  seek  to  excel)  in  those 
things  that  in  themselves  are  excellent.  The  lofty  spirit  of  such 
rivalry  can  be  thoroughly  congenial  only  with  what  is  akin  to  its 
own  nature — it  necessarily  rejects  and  refuses  to  have  sympathy 
with  objects  and  pursuits  that  are  based  though  perhaps  specious, 
that  may  possibly  appear  attractive  or  even  dazzling,  and  yet  in 
reality  are  unworthy  and  ignominious.  And  again,  a  truly  peaceful 
rivalry  such  as  this,  which  naturally  inclines  and  as  naturally 
attracts  all  within  its  influence  to  whatever  is  worthy  and  of 
intrinsic  excellence,  also  teaches  men  in  the  very  act  of  exalting 
themselves  both  to  advance  the  general  interests  of  mankind  at 
large,  and  to  promote  the  personal  exaltation  of  particular  indi- 
viduals. The  beneficial  influences  thus  brought  into,  operation, 
ever  acting  reciprocally,  continually  receive  fresh  strength  as  they 
prove  to  be  regularly  productive  of  greater  and  more  important 
mutual  advantages.  The  grand  result  is  a  system  of  combined 
action  growing  out  of  individual  effort— a  system  based  on  the 


138 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


broadest  and  most  comprehensive  good-will,  in  strict  alliance  with 
the  noblest  ambition  which  aims  at  a  perpetual  advance,  to  be 
accomplished  by  the  concurrent  onward  movement  of  the  entire 
community  of  mankind.  A  system  such  as  this,  in  which  aid 


ENTRANCE  TO  MAIN  BUILDING. 


and  encouragement  are  both  sought  from  all  and  given  to  all, 
cherishes  the  emulous  spirit  in  its  happiest  mood,  and  stimulates 
to  the  utmost  its  inherent  energy.  When  all  are  advancing,  each 
one  that  would  not  fall  into  the  rear  must  rather  redouble  than 
relax  his  efforts,  to  ensure  his  keeping  well  up  with  the  front; 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  139 

and  their  efforts  must  be  made  again  and  again,  always  with  more 
determined  resolution,  by  those  who,  not  content  with  the  general 
front,  aspire  to  a  pre-eminence  decidedly  in  advance  of  it. 

By  this  friendly  rivalry,  acting  under  conditions  through  which 
it  is  empowered  to  accomplish  its  proper  work,  Peace  achieves  its 
happy  triumphs.  For,  truly,  Peace  has  triumphs  signally  its  own ; 
in  nothing  inferior  to  the  very  proudest  that  may  be  won  by  War. 

Like  thunder-storms,  wars  may  be  necessary  convulsions ;  and 
certainly  it  is  possible  that,  in  their  issue,  the  fierce  and  deadly 
contests  of  hostile  rivalry  may  ultimately  prove  to  have  been 
beneficial.  The  rough  interruption  of  all  friendly  enterprise  for 
awhile  may  have  paralyzed  the  ar,ts  of  peace;  and  yet,  when  the 
storm  shall  have  cleared  away,  in  resuming  their  peaceful  occupa- 
tions men  may  find  that  they  are  working  in  a  purer  atmosphere, 
with  a  more  open  view  also,  and  with  fresh  vigor  and  animation. 

Rivalry,  whether  warlike  or  peaceful,  requires  that  the  rivals 
should  meet  and  make  trial  of  their  relative  strength.  Accord- 
ingly, whatever  practical  influences  for  good  a  friendly  competition 
may  be  able  to  exercise  upon  the  communities  and  nations  of 
mankind,  in  a  very  great  degree  must  be  dependent  upon  these 
two  conditions— EXHIBITION  and  COMPARISON.  Men  must  bring 
together  the  typical  examples  of  what  they  are  severally  compe- 
tent to  accomplish,  and  they  must  show  to  one  another  their 
various  works,  with  all  their  highest  perfections,  and  all  their 
unavoidable  shortcomings;  so  that  thus,  through  the  broadest  and 
the  most  comprehensive  and  searching  COMPARISON  between  the 
visible  exponents  of  their  existing  capacities  placed  side  by  side, 
the  workers  of  all  nations  may  learn  both  to  form  a  correct 
estimate  of  their  own  deficiencies,  and  duly  to  appreciate  each 
other's  achievements.  At  the  same  time,  and  by  the  same  means, 
every  competitor  in  the  noble  rivalry  of  excellence  may  contribute 
to  the  inestimably  precious  lessons  for  the  universal  advancement, 
which  are  certain  to  be  conveyed  in  the  concentrated  teaching 
of  an  universal  assemblage  and  exposition  of  works  of  Art 
and  Industry. 


.  • 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  141 

The  arrangement  of  countries  in  the  Main  Building  is  essen- 
tially a  geographical  one.  The  Building  is  in  the  form  of  a 
parallelogram,  extending  east  and  west  1876  feet  in  length,  and  north 
and  south  464  feet  in  width.  The  larger  portion  of  the  structure 
is  one  story  in  height,  and  shows  the  main  cornice  upon  the  out- 
side at  45  feet  above  the  ground,  the  interior  height  being  70 
feet.  At  the  centre  of  the  longer  sides  are  projections  416  feet 
in  length,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  shorter  sides  or  ends  of  the 
building  are  projections  216  feet  in  length.  In  these  projections, 
in  the  centre  of  the  four  sides,  are  located  the  main  entrances, 
which  are  provided  with  arcades  upon  the  ground  floor,  and 
central  facades  extending  to  the  height  of  90  feet. 

Entering  by  the  great  eastern  portal  the  visitor  begins  with 
the  United  States,  which  extends  north  and  south  from  the  main 
avenue,  on  the  south  side,  along  to  the  central  transept,  and  on 
the  north  side,  to  the  Mexican  Court;  adjoining  the  Mexican 
Court  are  Brazil,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and 
France,  which  latter  brings  the  visitor  to  the  central  transept  on 
the  north  side;  crossing  the  transept  we  pass  through  the  British 
Court  to  India,  Canada,  the  Australian  and  other  British  colonies; 
these  occupy,  speaking  roughly,  two-thirds  of  the  space  on  the  north 
side  from  the  central  transept,  and  the  remaining  third  is  occupied 
with  Norway,  Sweden  and  Italy,  which  brings  us  to  the  western 
transept 

Crossing  the  main  avenue,  we  enter  the  courts  of  Central 
America,  and  South  American  (except  Brazil)  exhibits.  Turning 
eastward,  we  pass  through  China,  Japan;  the  war  department  of 
Sweden;  Denmark,  Egypt,  Spain,  Turkey,  to  the  south  of  which 
is  Portugal;  Russia,  Austria,  and  Germany,  when  we  find  our- 
selves in  the  southern  portion  of  the  central  transept,  ready  to 
again  enter  the  United  States,  at  the  chemical  or  silver-ware 
exhibits,  as  our  inclination  or  tastes  may  lead  us.  To  the  south 
of  the  Main  Building  is  the  Mineralogical  annex,  and  north  of 
the  Main  Building  there  is  the  carriage  annex,  a  large  and  useful 
structure,  with  an  excellent  display  of  stoves  on  the  northern 


142 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


half  of  it.  The 
central  avenue  of 
the  Main  Build- 
ing is  adorned 
with  a  large  iron 
fountain  in  the 
east  end,  and  by 
a  small  fountain 
of  Doulton  ware 
in  the  west  end. 
On  either  side 
of  the  Doulton 
fountain,  are  a 
groupof  Minton's 
majolica  ware, 
and  a  graceful 
cehotaph  in  terra- 
cotta, filled  with 
specimens  of 
Messrs.Doultons' 
faience. 

For  the  prin- 
cipal details  of 
the  Main  Build- 
ing we  refer  to 
the  Commission- 
ers' Reports,  as 
follows : — 

The  EAST  EN- 
TRANCE forms  the 
principal  a  p- 
proach  for  car- 
riages. The 
SOUTH  ENTRANCE 
is  the  principal 


approach     f  r  o  m 

STANDARD  AT  MUSIC  PAVILION,  CENTRAL  TRANSEPT. 


street    cars,    the 
ticket  offices  be- 
ing located  upon 
the  line  of  ELM 
AVENUE.      The 
MAIN  PORTAL  x>n 
the     north     side 
communicates  di- 
rectly   with    the 
ART     GALLERY, 
and    the    MAIN 
PORTAL    on    the 
west    side    gives 
the    main    pas- 
sage-way to  MA- 
CHINERY   HALL. 
Upon  the  cor- 
ners of  the  build- 
ing there  are  four 
towers  75  feet  in 
height,    and    be- 
tween the  towers 
and    the    central 
projections  or  en- 
trances,  there    is 
a  lower  roof  in- 
troduced    show- 
ing a  cornice   at 
24    feet    above 
the  ground.      In 
order    to    obtain 
a  central   feature 
for   the   building 
as  a   whole,   the 
roof    over     the 
central    part,    for 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


"The  Great  Exhibition, 


CHANDELIER. 

By  Mitchell,  Vance  &•  Co. 


[  The  Main  Building. 


144 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


184  feet  square,  has  been  raised  above  the  surrounding  portion, 
and  four  towers,  48  feet  square,  rising  to  120  feet  in  height,  have 
been  introduced  at  the  corners  of  the  elevated  roof. 


"The  Great  Exhibition, i&7!>:-\         CRYSTAL  STANDARD. 
By  Mitchell,  Vance  &  Co. 


\  The  Main  Building. 


The  areas  covered  are  as  follows: — 

Ground  Floor, 872,320  square  feet.  20.02  acres.- 

Upper  Floors  in  projections,       .         .         .  37,344      "  -85 

"  "       in  towers,          ....       26,344      "         "  .60 


936,008 


21.47 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


The  general  arrangement  of  the  ground  plan  shows  a  central 
avenue  or  nave  1 20  feet  in  width,  and  extending  1,832  feet  in 
length.  This  is  the  longest  avenue  of  that  width  ever  introduced 
into  an  Exhibition  Building.  On  either  side  of  this  nave  there  is 
an  avenue  100  feet  by  1,832  feet  in  length.  Between  the  nave 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


CLOCK. 

By  Mitchell,  Vance  &•  Co. 


[The  Main  Building. 


and  side  avenues  are  aisles  48  feet  wide,  and  on  the  outer  sides 
of  the  building  smaller  aisles  24  feet  in  width.  In  order  to  break  the 
great  length  of  the  roof  lines,  three  cross  avenues  or  transepts  have 
been  introduced  of  the  same  widths  and  in  the  same  relative  positions 
to  each  other  as  the  nave  and  avenues  running  lengthwise,  viz.: 


1 46 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


a  central  transept  120  feet  in  width  by  416  feet  in  length,  with  one 
on  either  side  of  100  feet  by  416  feet,  and  aisles  between  of  48  feet. 
The  intersections  of  these  avenues  and  transepts  in  the  central 
portion  of  the  building  ^result  in  dividing  the  ground  floor  into 
nine  open  spaces  free  from  supporting  columns,  and  covering  in 
the  aggregate  an  area  of  416  feet  square.  Four  of  these  spaces 
are  100  feet  square,  four  100  feet  by  120  feet,  and  the  central  space 


'  The  Great  Exhibition,  i876:'\      THE  CENTURY  CUP. 
By  the  Gorham  Company. 


\Tht  Main  Building. 


'or  pavilion  120  feet  square.  .The  intersections  of  the  48  feet  aisles 
produce  four  interior  courts  48  feet  square,  one  at  each  corner  of 
the  central  space. 

The  main  promenades  through  the  nave  and  central  transept, 
are  each  30  feet  in  width,  and  those  through  the  centre  of  the 
side  avenues  and  transepts  15  feet  each.  All  other  walks  are  10 
feet  wide,  and  lead  at  either  end  to  exit  doors. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


The  following  table  gives  the  principal  dimensions  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  building. 


DIMENSIONS: — Measurements   taken   from   centre   to   centre  of 
supporting  columns. 


148 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Length  of  Building      .         .1876  feet  Width  of  Building        .  .       464  feet 

CENTRAL  AVENUE  OR  NAVE. 

Length         ....      1832  feet  Height  of  supporting  columns     45  feet 

Width      ....  120    "  Height  to  ridge  of  roof  .         70   " 

CENTRAL  TRANSEPT. 

Length 416  feet  Height  to  top  of  columns        .     45  feet 

Width        .        .        .        .          1 20    "  Height  to  ridge  of  roof  .         70    " 

SIDE  AVENUES. 

Length          ....     1832  feet  Height  to  top  of  columns        .     45  feet 

Width       ....  100    "  Height  to  ridge  of  roof  .         65    " 


ENLARGEMENT  OF  PORTION  OF  THE  CENTURY  CUP. 

By  the  Gorham  Company. 


SIDE  TRANSEPTS. 
Length   ..       .        .        .        .    416  feet 

Width        ....          100    " 

CENTRAL  AISLES. 

Length  at  east  end         .        .    744  feet 
Length  at  west  end    .        .        672    " 

SIDE  AISLES. 

Length  at  east  end         .        .     744  feet 
Length  at  west  end    .        .        672    " 

CENTRE  SPACE  OR  PAVILION. 
Ground  Plan        .         .        .     I2oft.sq. 
Height  to  top  of  supporting  col.  72     " 

TOWERS  OVER  COURTS. 
Ground  Plan       .        .        .      48  ft.  sq. 

CORNER  TOWERS. 
Ground  Plan         .        .        .     24  ft.  sq. 


Height  to  top  of  columns 
Height  to  ridge  of  roof 

Width 

Height  to  roof      .        . 


Width 

Height  to  roof      *        . 

Height  to  ridge  of  roof 


Height  to  roof     . 
Height  to  roof      . 


45  feet 
65    " 

48  feet 
30    " 

24  feet 

24    " 

96  ft.  sq. 


.     i2Oti  «q. 
.    75  ft.  sq. 


The  foundations  consist  of  piers  of  masonry. 

The  superstructure  is  composed  of  wrought  iron  columns  which 
support  wrought  iron  roof  trusses.  These  columns  are  composed 
of  rolled  channel  bars  with  plates  riveted  to  the  flanges. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


149 


Lengthwise  of  the  building  the  columns  are  spaced  at  the 
uniform  distance  apart  of  24  feet.'  In  the  entire  structure  there  are 
672  columns,  the  shortest  being  23  feet  and  the  longest  125  feet 
in  length.  Their  aggregate  weight  is  2,200,000  pounds. 

The  roof  trusses  are  similar  in  form  to  those  in  general  use 
for  depots  and  warehouses,  and  consist  of  straight  rafters  with 
struts  and  tie-bars.  The  aggregate  weight  of  iron  in  the  roof  trusses 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876. 


SIDE  OF  VASE. 

By  the  Gorhatn  Company. 


I  The  Main  Building. 


and  girders  is  5,000,000  pounds.  This  building  being  a  temporary 
construction  the  columns  and  trusses  are  so  designed  that  they 
may  be  easily  taken  down  and  erected  again  at  another  site.  The 
sides  of  the  building  for  the  height  of  seven  feet  from  the  ground 
are  finished  with  brickwork  in  panels  between  the  columns,  above 
the  seven  feet,  with  glazed  sash.  Portions  of  the  sash  are  movable 
for  ventilation.  The  roof  covering  is  of  tin  upon  sheathing  boards. 


150  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

The  ground  flooring  is  of  plank  upon  sills  resting  upon  the  ground, 
with  no  open  space  underneath.  All  the  corners  and  angles  of 
the  building  upon  the  exterior  are  accentuated  by  galvanized  iron 
octagonal  turrets,  which  extend  the  full  height  of  the  building  from 
the  ground  level  to  above  the  roof.  These  turrets  at  the  corners  of 
the  towers  are  surmounted  with  flag-staffs,  at  other  places  with  the 
national  eagle.  The  national  standard  with  appropriate  emblems 
is  placed  over  the  centre  of  each  of  the  four  main  entrances. 
Over  each  of  the  side  entrances  is  placed  a  trophy  showing  the 
national  colors  of  the  country  occupying  that  part  of  the  building. 
At  the  vestibules  forming  part  of  the  four  main  entrances  varie- 
gated brick  and  tile  have  been  introduced.  The  building  stands 
nearly  due  east  and  west  and  is  lighted  almost  entirely  by  side 
light  from  the  north  and  south  sides.  Louvre  ventilators  are 
introduced  over  the  central  nave  and  each  of  the  avenues.  Sky- 
lights are  introduced  over  the  central  aisles.  Small  balconies,  or 
galleries  of  observation,  have  been  provided  in  the  four  central 
towers  of  the  building  at  the  heights  of  the  different  stories.  These 
form  attractive  places  from  which  excellent  views  of  the  whole 
interior  may  be  obtained. 

A  complete  system  of  water  supply,  with  ample  provision  of 
fire-cocks,  etc.,  is  provided  for  protection  against  fire,  and  for 
sanitary  purposes. 

The  form  of  the  building  is  such  that  all  exhibitors  have  an 
equally  fair  opportunity  to  exhibit  their  goods  to  advantage.  There 
is  comparatively  little  choice  of  location  necessary,  as  the  light  is 
uniformly  distributed  and  each  of  the  spaces  devoted  to  products 
is  located  upon  one  of  the  main  thoroughfares. 

The  engravings  show  the  Main  Building,  the  Eastern  Entrance, 
the  Central  Transept,  and  a  bronze  figure  of  an  Indian,  holding  a 
candelabra,  placed  at  the  steps  of  the  Music  Pavilion  in  the  centre 
of  the  main  transept. 

No  more  hopeful  sign  of  the  benefits  of  the  Exhibition  could 
be  wished  than  that  there  has  recently  been  incorporated  the  Penn- 
sylvania Museum  of  Industrial  Art;  and  that  Cincinnati  will  soon 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}          THE  MILTON   SHIELD. 

By  E I  kin  ^  ton  &  Co. 


152  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

count  a  similar  institution  for  the  benefit  of  its  citizens.  This 
step  in  the  cultivation  of  correct  taste  will  not  stop  in  these  places, 
but  will  soon  find  place  in  all  the  principal  cities  in  the  Union. 
And  then  we  hope  to  see  many  of  our  household  monstrosities 
give  place  to  objects  equally  useful— not  any  more  expensive— 
and  infinitely  more  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  exhibit  of  Messrs. 
Mitchell,  Vance  &  Co.,  of  New  York— one  of  whose  chandeliers 
and  a  crystal  standard  we  engrave  on  pages  143  and  144 — excited 
very  general  admiration,  being,  indeed,  second  to  none  in  that 
branch  of  industry,  that  any  part  of  the  world  sent  to  the 
exhibition.  They  upheld  the  honor  of  the  United  States  in  that 
combination  which  is  somewhat  rare  with  us — a  combination  of 
pure  art  with  perfection  of  manufacture.  The  chandelier  was 
designed  by  the  artist  of  the  firm,  Mr.  Perring.  The  style  repre- 
sents the  early  Greek  form  of  ornamentation ;  the  main  stem  consists 
of  a  tapering  pedestal  ornamented  with  female  figures  in  low  relief, 
supporting  a  gracefully  designed  Greek  vase,  garlanded  with  laurel- 
wreaths.  From  the  top  of  the  vase  the  stem  is  richly  ornamented 
and  is  crowned  with  a  canopy  formed  by  a  succession  of  lions' 
heads  in  high-relief,  holding  gilt  curb-rings  in  their  jaws.  Sur- 
rounding the  stem  are  four  fluted  columns  resting  upon  ornamental 
bases.  .  These  columns  have  richly-foliated  capitals,  and  support 
a  dome-like  structure,  upon  which  are  perched  a  series  of  flying 
nondescript  animals.  Between  the  columns  are  four  griffins,  and 
from  the  pedestals  which  support  them  and  the  bases  of  the 
columns  spring  the  several  arms.  The  burners  represent  antique 
lamps,  and  are  ornamented  with  shades  in  harmony  with  the 
general  design.  The  chandelier  is  massive  in  appearance,  but 
graceful  withal,  and  is  finished  in  the  style  known  as  verd-antique, 
and  relieved  at  prominent  points  by  judicious  gilding.  It  has 
eight  lights,  and  is  one  of  the  most  elaborate  designs  of  the  kind 
ever  executed  in  this  country. 

If  the  Gorham  Manufacturing  Company  registered  the  number 
of  visitors  to  its  stall  in  th?  rotunda  of  the  central  transept,  we 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


153 


suspect  the  footing  up  would  reach  several  millions.  The  first  object 
which  met  the  visitor's  eyes  was  the  trophy — the  "  Century  Vase" 
— a  work  in  solid  silver,  weighing  2000  ounces,  designed  by 


Messrs.  Wilkinson  &  Pairpoint.  We  engrave  it  on  page  146.  On 
the  base  are  represented  an  Indian  and  a  pioneer,  the  waning  of 
barbarism,  the  first  step  in  civilization.  Groups  of  fruits,  flowers 


•The  Great  Exhibition,  i8jt>."\ 


INDUSTRY. 

Ey  Elkington  Gr  Cc 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


155 


and  cereals — of  which  we  represent  a  large  engraving  in  detail  on 
pages  147  and  148 — also  surround  the  base.  On  the  left  is  a  group 
representing  the  Genius  of  War,  with  the  torch  in  her  right  hand, 
while  the  left  grasps  the  chain  holding  the  "dogs  of  war"  in  check. 
A  shell  has  shattered  the  tree,  and  a  broken  caisson  wheel  is 


"  The  Great  Exhibition, 


THE  NEPTUNE  PLAQUE. 

By  Klkington  &  Co. 


\The  Main  Building. 


half  buried  in  the  debris  on  the  battle-ground.  The  group  on. the 
right  is  the  lion  led  by  little  children,  musical  instruments  and 
flowers  strewn  on  the  ground,  all  denoting  perfect  peace  and 
security.  The  medallion  in  front  is  the  Angel  of  Fame,  holding 
in  one  hand  the  palm-branch  and  laurel-wreath,  and  in  the  other 


156  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

a  wreath  of  immortelles  and  a  portrait  of  Washington.  The 
medallion  on  the  opposite  side  is  the  Genius  of  Philosophy  and 
Diplomacy,  with  one  hand  resting  on  the  printing  press,  and  with 
the  other  holding  a  portrait  of  Franklin.  On  either  side  of  the 
plinth  is  a  head  of  the  bison,  the  king  of  the  prairie.  Having 
now  passed  the  Revolution,  and  witnessed  the  restoration  of  peace, 
the  Nation  commences  its  growth;  and  hence  from  the  plinth  the 
vase  rises. 

On  the  front  panel  of  the  vase  we  see  the  Genius  of  the  Arts, 
ready  to  inscribe  on  his  tablet  the  names  of  those  famous  in 
Literature,  Science,  Music,  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture. 
In  the  reverse  panel  the  Genius  stands  ready  to  record  our 
advancement  in  Commerce,  Mining  and  Manufactures.  Crowning 
the  vase  we  have  the  last  and  grandest  scene  in  our  hundred 
years  of  existence.  Here  is  America  holding  aloft  the  olive  branch 
of  peace  and  the  wreath  of  honor,  summoning  Europe,  Asia  and 
Africa  to  join  with  her  in  the  -friendly  rivalry  with  which  she 
enters  on  the  second  century  of  her  existence. 

The  reader  who  has  followed  us  through  this  description,  and 
who  will  now  turn  to  the  vase,  will  see  how  splendidly  this  noble 
theme  has  been  treated.  Aside  from  the  mere  mechanical  execution, 
which  is  perfect  in  its  way,  the  story  of  the  republic  has  been 
told  by  fitting  emblems  brought  together  in  one  harmonious  whole, 
which  in  itself — more,  perhaps,  than  any  other  feature  of  the 
design — typifies  the  cause  of  our  great  prosperity. 

Leaving  this  retreat,  but  with  the  intention  of  returning,  we 
cross  the  transept  to  Messrs.  Elkington's  exhibit.  Since  1851  this 
firm  has  exhibited  at  every  really  international  display,  and 
carried  off  so  many  awards  and  medals  that  they  may  justly  feel 
satisfied  with  opinions  of  jurors.  No  firm  has  ever  succeeded  in 
making  as  fine  a  display  as  the  Messrs.  Elkington — with  the 
exception  of  copies  from  the  antique  their  designs  are  all  original, 
and  the  copyrights  of  designs  are  their  exclusive  property.  Their 
exhibit  comprehends  nearly  every  class  of  workmanship  in  the 
refined  metals  and  enamels.  Entering  the  portals  of  this  hallowed 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


157 


place,  with  steps  reverential  to  the  many  examples  of  true  art, 
we  feel  grateful  to  this  firm  for  making  such  a  magnificient  display; 
for  all  may  look,  and  only  the  rich  can  possess  these  treasures, 
but  it  must  be  only  the  rich  who  are  liberal  of  heart  and  intelli- 
gent to  appreciate.  Here  is  the  Helicon  Vase,  repousse  in  silver 
and  steel,  with  its  golden  enrichments  of  damascened  tracery,  with 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."$ 


PORCELAIN  VASE. 

By  Daniells  &  Sans. 


[The  Main  Building. 


its  twin  recumbent  nymphs  and  medallion  reliefs  of  the  muses; 
a  work  alike  an  honor  to  the  artist,  M.  Morel  Ladeuil,  whose  six 
years  of  patient  toil  have  been  well  repaid,  and  a  credit  to  the 
spirit  and  enterprise  of  the  house  of  Elkington,  for  the  cost  of 
production  does  not  fall  far  short  of  ^"6,000.  Next  to  this  is  the 
fac-simile  in  electro  of  the  Milton  Shield,  produced  by  the  same 


158  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

artist, — a  work  replete  with  poetic  ideas,  evolved  with  artistic  force. 
The  reader  will  observe  our  engraving  of  this  wonderful  subject 
on  page  151. 

The  original  of  this  work  of  art  was  manufactured  for  the 
International  Exhibition  of  Paris,  in  1867,  and  was  purchased  by 
the  English  Government  for  the  Museum  of  Science  and  Art, 
South  Kensington.  It  was,  like  the  vase  described  above,  the 
unaided  work  of  Morel  Ladeuil,  who  designed  and  wrought 
it  by  the  repousse  process  in  silver  and  steel,  with  enrichments 
in  damascened  gold.  In  consequence  of  the  original  having 
already  been  exhibited,  attention  is  now  drawn  to  a  fac-simile 
copy  only,  which  is  shown  merely  to  illustrate  how  perfectly  the 
most  elaborate  works  of  art  in  metal  may  be  reproduced  by  the 
electrotype  process,  which  preserves  intact  the  finish  given  by  the 
hand  of  the  artist  himself. 

The  subjects  selected  for  illustration  on  this  Shield  were  taken 
from  Milton's  "Paradise  Lost,"  sixth  book;  and  the  able  manner  in 
which  the  poet's  thoughts  were  rendered  has  been  commented 
upon  by  several  competent  critics.  Every  face  expresses  the 
appropriate  mental  emotion  or  passion.  There  is  awe  and  fear 
expressed  in  the  face  of  Adam,  and  modesty  in  that  of  Eve,  as 
they  listen  to  the  recital  by  Raphael  of  the  conflict  between 
the  hosts  of  Heaven  and  Hell.  The  listeners  are  seated  in 
Eden's  bower,  shaded  with  trees,  with  creeping  plants,  tender 
ferns,  and  spontaneously  produced  fruits,  scattered  at  their  feet  in 
rich  profusion.  Confidence  is  indicated  in  the  faces  of  the  hosts 
of  Heaven  as  they  advance  to  the  attack.  There  is  Michael- 
Angelo-like  force  of  drawing  in  the  terrified  faces  and  forms  of  the 
defeated  rebels,  as  they  are  driven  out  of  Heaven,  and  fall  down 
to  perdition  in  an  endless  variety  of  attitude,  recalling  the  "Last 
Judgment."  How  fiercely  St.  Michael  wields  his  flaming  sword,  as 
he  stands  on  the  postrate  body  of  the  Dragon !  Sin  and  Death  are 
represented  with  their  appropriate  symbols  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Shield,  and  soaring  far  above  the  regions  of  conflict,  strife,  defeat, 
sin,  and  death,  seraphic  and  angelic  figures,  borne  on  wings,  approach, 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


'59 


in  attitudes  adoring,  the  cherub-surrounded  Emblem  of  all  Light  and 
Life,  spiritual  and  material.  The  signs  of  the  zodiac,  with  figures 
floating,  symbolize  the  rolling  year  and  flight  of  time,  and  deli- 
cately-worked leafage,  in  low  relief,  is  introduced  to  fill  up  the 
space  not  occupied  by  the  illustration  of  the  poem. 

The  exhibitors  display  a  large  number  of  enamels,  the  designs 


"Tht  Great  Exhibition,  ff?6."\ 


PORCELAIN  VASE. 

By  Daniells  &  Sons, 


[Tht  Main  Building. 


of  which  are  due  to  the  artistic  director  of  Messrs.  Elkington's 
Studios,  Mr.  A.  Willms.  To  this  talented  artist,  are  also  due  the 
designs  for  nearly  all  the  Decorative  Dessert  Services,  Repousse 
Irons  and  Silver  Plaques,  and  other  works  of  art  exhibited  by 
Elkington  &  Co.  Regretfully  leaving  this  court,  which  seems  as 
if  it  were  one  of  those  belonging  to  the  "Arabian  Nights,"  we 


160  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

enter  that  of  another  English  firm,  Messrs.  Daniells  &  Sons  of 
London.  Although  not  manufacturers  of  the  articles  they  exhibit, 
but  simply  the  decorators,  and  representing  the  wares  of  several 
of  the  leading  English  firms  in  that  branch  of  industry,  they 
make  a  superb  exhibit  which  is  much  visited,  much  admired,  and 
no  doubt  has  been  profitable  to  the  exhibitors.  If  no  others 
exhibited  in  these  industries,  Messrs.  Daniells'  exhibit  of  Majolica 
and  Faience  would  make  a  creditable  exhibition  in  itself.  We 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."]  MAJOLICA  STAND.  [The  Main  Building. 

By  Daniells  Gr  Sons. 

engrave  several  of  their  choicest  articles  on  this  and  pages  157  and 
159.  The  engravings  of  the  vases  on  pages  157  and  159  show 
their  beauty  of  form  and  the  exquisite  designs  which  enrich  them. 
The  vases  are  porcelain  of  a  deep  chocolate  color,  of  superior 
evenness  and  depth  of  tone.  On  this  body  after  the  first  firing, 
the  design  has  been  painted  by  a  process  known  as  pate  stir  pate, 
or  paste  on  paste,— a  careful  examination  of  our  engravings  will 
show  what  minute  and  delicate  work  is  possible  by  this  method. 
Each  link  in  Cupid's  chain,  every  leaf  and  flower,  even  the 


THE  MAIN  B  UILDING.  1 6 1 

finer  folds  of  drapery  are  expressed  with  exactness.  As  we 
shall  have  to  return  to  this  exhibit,  as  well  as  Messrs.  Elkington's, 
we  shall  defer  our  description  of  the  pate  sur pate  process  until  then. 

In  the  meantime  we  pass  from  this  to  the  exhibit  of  Messrs. 
Brownfield  &  Sons  of  Staffordshire,  who  are  manufacturers  as  well  as 
decorators,  and  considering  that  their  exhibit  is  the  production 
of  but  one  firm,  they  make  an  elegant  display,  and  do  much 
credit  to  themselves.  From  their  exhibit  we  engrave  on  pages 
162  and  163  four  lovely  dessert  plates  which  look  fitter  to  frame  and 
thereby  enrich  the  corners  of  one's  drawing-room  than  to  touch 
with  a  spoon.  The.  subjects  are  all  after  well-known  paintings 
and  do  not  need  description.  The  artist  and  engravers  have 
faithfully  reproduced  the  designs,  and  we  are  glad — as  we  cannot 
possess  such  a  set  of  dessert  plates— that  we  have  them  to  look 
upon  in  black  and  white  in  these  pages. 

Before  leaving  the  English  exhibit  of  pottery  and  porcelain, 
we  must  glance  at  that  of  Messrs.  Doulton  &  Co.  of  Lambeth, 
who  manufacture  many  articles  of  household  utility,  in  artistic 
designs,  which  do  not  cost  any  more  than  others  witfi  designs  which 
are  not  artistic.  In  a  secluded  corner,  at  the  foot  of  one  of  the 
spiral  staircases  leading  to  the  towers,  were  statuary,  a  pulpit, 
and  a  font,  in  red  terra  cotta;  the  pulpit  and  font  relieved  by 
what  is  'called  Doulton  ware.  We  engrave  the  font  on  page  165. 
The  columns  are  covered  with  a  delicate  tracery  of  leaves,  and  the 
upper  projection  is  separated  by  smaller  columns  into  panels, 
each  of  which  is  occupied  by  a  scriptural  scene,  chosen  with  reference 
to  the  purpose  of  the  font.  The  engraving  shows  the  complexity 
of  the  detail  and  the  vigorous  attitudes  and  gestures  of  the 
human  actors  in  the  little  drama.  The  subjects  of  the  panels 
shown  in  the  engraving  are  "The  Judgment  of  Solomon,"  "The 
Slaughter  of  the  Innocents,"  and  "The  Adoration  of  the  Wise  Men." 
"The  Dove  of  Peace,"  broods  over  the  font,  and  each  emblem 
is  wreathed  with  the  acanthus  or  lily.  We  also  engrave  on  page 
1 66  a  group  of  mugs  and  pitchers  of  Doulton  ware. 

Near   to  Messrs.  Doulton's  exhibit,  the  Watcomb  Terra  Cotta 


162 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Co.,  of  Devonshire,  England,  make  a  pretty  exhibit  of  works  in 
red  terra  cotta.  From  their  exhibit  we  engrave  on  pages  167, 
1 68  and  169  three  subjects,  "Nymph  and  Concha,"  "Sappho,"  and 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." 


DESSERT  PLATES. 

By  BroTunfield  &  Sons. 


\.The  Main  Building. 


"Eve  nursing  Cain  and  Abel."  The  latter  is  a  beautiful  subject, 
delicately  reproduced  after  the  original  by  Le  Bay.  The  original 
was  exhibited  at  London  in  1862,  and  excited  such  unqualified 
admiration  that  a  very  large  amount  of  money  was  secured  for 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


163 


the  artist  by  the  sale  of  photographs  of  the  subject,  but  his 
reward  did  not  stop  here,  for  he  was  granted  a  medal,  many  com- 
missions for  replicas  in  marble,  and — fame.  The  Watcomb  Terra 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876  "J 


DESSERT  PLATES. 

By  Bronm/ietd  &  Sons. 


[  The  Main  Bitilding 


Cotta  Co.  have  done  well  to  reproduce  this  charming  subject,  and 
if  opportunity  offers  it  will  soon  become  popular  in  the  United 
States.  The  "Sappho"  and  " Nymph  and  Concha,"  are  beautiful 
examples  of  the  high  artistic  qualities  of  a  material  too  little 


1 64  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

employed  in  this  kind  of  work.  Terra  cotta — meaning  burned  or 
baked  clay— has  been  used  from  the  earliest  ages  as  a  material 
for  jugs,  jars  and  ornamental  figures,  and  during  the  five  centuries 
preceding  the  seventeenth  it  was  largely  used  by  the  Italians  in 
architectural  decoration. 

The  baking  of  earth,  especially  of  the  stiffer  pipe-clays,  to 
form  utensils,  is  one  of  the  earliest  achievements  of  men  emerging 
from  the  savage  state.  At  first,  of  course,  there  was  no  attempt 
at  ornament.  Then  a  rough  checker-board  pattern  was  scratched 
upon  the  sides  of  the  pots  and  jars.  The  next  stage  was  to  lay 
a  sort  of  scroll-work  in  black  glaze  over  the  earthen  ground; 
and  the  pattern  soon  developed  into  conventional  representations 
of  plants  and  animals,  of  which  the  graceful  foliated  pattern 
around  the  neck  of  the  larger  vase  is  a  beautiful  instance.  A  still 
further  refinement  was  the  covering  of  the  ground  with  the  black 
glaze,  leaving  the  pattern  prominent  in  the  natural  color  of  the 
earth.  The  shape  of  Daniells'  vases  selected  is  simply  charming,  and 
gives  a  striking  idea  of  the  ductility  of  the  material  to  the  shaping 
of  fire.  The  decoration  is  painting  by  hand,  and  the  artistic 
feeling  evinced  in  the  patterns  causes  a  regret  that  the  finished 
product  should  be  at  the  mercy  of  a  careless  servant.  But  this  is 
an  age  when  we  have  our  treasures  in  earthen  vessels,  and  we 
must  assume  that  the  buyer  of  such  shapely  ware  will  suffer  no 
profane  hands  to  be  laid  upon  his  terra  cotta.  What  an  education 
for  the  eye  it  would  be  if  Mr.  Eastlake's  suggestion  were  every- 
where adopted,  and  the  tasteless  china  upon  our  wash-stands 
replaced  by  this  beautiful  ware,  with  its  Greek  figures  and  clear- 
cut  conventional  foliage! 

Not  the  least  notable  of  the  English  display  is  its  furni- 
ture, interior  decorations,  carpets  and  tapestries.  The  firm  of 
Jeffrey  &  Co.,  of  London,  exhibit  several  most  artistic  designs 
in  paper-hangings.  We  select  one,  "La  Margarete,"  and  en- 
grave the  three  sections  which  complete  the  design.  The 
frieze — on  page  170 — shows  "The  God  of  Love,  and  in  his 
hand  a  Queen." — Alcestis,  the  queen  of  wives — crowned  with 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


the    daisy    and    clothed    in    its    colors    as    Chaucer    describes    in 


his  Prologue: 


As  she  that  is  of  alle  flowres  flour, 
Fulfilled  of  all  virtue  and  honour 
And  ever  alike  fair  and  fresh  of  hue. 


PROLOGUE  :  Legend  of  Good  Women. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."  [ 


FONT. 

By  Doulton  &•  Co. 


[The  Main  -Building 


Next  in  order  are  placed  as  not  inappropriate  attendants  on 
the  ideal  wife,  such  domestic  virtues  as  Diligence,  Order,  Providence 
and  Hospitality,  which  will  not  be  considered  out  of  place  in  any 
house,  and  may  fitly  be  represented  as  caryatides  supporting  the 
roof.  Between  the  figures,  the  alternate  plants  suggest  the  text 
inscribed  below  them  from  Chaucer's  "  Flower  and  the  Leaf."  In 
the  daisy  pattern — half  of  which  is  on  page  170,  the  other  half 


i66 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


on  page  171,  above  the  Dado,  thus  showing  the  position  of  the 
paper  when  on  the  wall.  The  festoons  of  the  daisy  pattern  can 
be  increased,  according  to  the  height  of  the  room.  Below  is 
introduced  the  burden  of  the  song  in  praise  of  the  flower  from 

the  same  poem: — 

"Si  douce  est  la  Margarete." 

In  the  Dado,  the    Purity  and    Innocence  which   the  poet  does 
not    "clepe  folye,"    is  further  symbolized   by   the    Lilies    and    the 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  i87(>:-]       GROUP  OF  DOULTON  WARE 

By  Doulton  &  Co. 


[The Main  Building. 


Doves.  The  design  was  furnished  by  Mr.  Walter  Crane,  of  London, 
an  architect  who  has  recently  given  his  attention  to  interior 
decoration. 

In  ancient  times  the  Arts  comprised  two  great  divisions, — the 
Liberal  and  the  Servile.  The  latter  were  about  equivalent  to  what 
we  to-day  call  mechanical  arts,  and  they  received  the  name  of 
servile  because  their  practice  was  relegated  to  the  slaves;  whereas 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


107 


the  Liberal  Arts,  which  included  grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric,  music, 
arithmetic,  geometry  and  astronomy,  were  practiced  by  freemen 
alone.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  world,  while  retaining 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}        EVE  NURSING  CAIN  AND  ABEL. 

By  the  Watcomb  Terra  Cotta  Co. 


\The  Main  Building. 


the  former  term,  makes  a  different  division.  We  speak  of  the 
Fine  Arts  as  distinguished  from  those  which  are  simply  useful 
or  mechanical;  and  by  Fine  Arts  we  mean  poetry,  music,  sculp- 


1 68 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


ture,  painting  and  architecture.  But  when  we  add  to  an  article 
which,  in  itself,  supplies  a  mere  bodily  want,  such  ornamentation 
as  makes  it  lovely  or  pleasing  to  look  upon,  attractive  to  the  eye 
or  ministering  to  the  wants  of  the  mind,  we  at  once  place  it  in  that 
great  middle  ground  between  Fine  Art  and  mere  mechanical 
execution,  which  is  known  as  the  field  of  Industrial  Art. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  /8?6."] 


NYMPH  AND  CONCHA. 

By  the  Watcotnb  Terra  Cotta  Co. 


\The  Main  Building. 


Thus,  only  excluding  the  production  of  raw  material,  Industrial 
Art  might  be  made  to  include  every  branch  of  labor.  But,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  application  of  art  to  industry,  while  affecting 
all  branches  of  manufacture,  has  found  its  chief  expression  in  a 
number  of  special  directions;  as  in  the  decoration  of  textile 
fabrics,  whether  by  stamping  a  pattern  on,  or  weaving  it  in  to, 
the  material;  in  the  making  of  tapestry,  lace  and  embroidery; 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


169 


in  ornamental  printing  and  bookbinding;  in  furniture,  upholstery, 
paper-hangings  and  papier-mache;  in  the  manufacture  of  iron, 
steel  and  copper,  and  especially  in  braziery ;  in  working  the  precious 
metals  and  their  imitations,  as  in  jewelry;  and  in  the  production 
of  glass  and  pottery. 

For  many  years  France  has  asserted  and  maintained  her  supremacy 
in  the  manufacture  of  bronzes — a  supremacy  doubtless  due  to  the 


The  Great  Exhibition, 


SAPPHO. 

By  the  Watcomb  Terra  Cotta 


[  The  Main  Building. 


superiority  of  her  Schools  of  Art,  where  her  workmen  are  specially 
prepared  and  educated  in  correct  principles  of  design.  In  this 
special  industry — that  of  the  bronzists — a  thoroughly  organized  and 
widespread  system  of  education  prevails,  and  the  result  to  the 
nation  is  shown  in  what  has  been  almost  a  monopoly  of  a  par- 
ticular industry  of  immense  pecuniary  value.  Recently,  however, 
other  nations  have  entered  the  field  in  competition  with  the  French 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


bronzists.      Germany   has    developed    some   excellent   talent;     and 


more  recently  England,  by  devoting  herself  just  as  France  has  so 
long  done— gradually    to   training    the    young   workmen    up    from 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


171 


the   Art  School    to   designing  and    modeling  for   metal-work — has 


gained  for  herself  an  excellent  reputation.     Such  work  as  is  exhibited 
by  Messrs.  Cox  &  Son,  of  London,  a  house  whose  productions  are 


172 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


known  all  over  the  world,  could  not  be  produced  by  any  but 
workmen  whose  education  has  been  not  only  in  the  workshop 
and  foundry,  but  also  in  the  studio. 

We  ask   the  reader  to  give   this   work  of  art-manufacture   the 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.' 


SNAKE-CHARMER. 

By  Cox  &•  Sons. 


[  The  Main  Building. 


degree  of  attention  which  it  merits.  The  material  is  bronze — first 
cast  in  a  mould,  and  afterwards  finished  with  the  chisel.  The  sub- 
ject is  an  Indian  Snake-charmer,  a  class  of  men  frequently  met  with 
in  Asia  and  India  and  throughout  the  tropics.  Observe  the  ease 
and  gracefulness  of  the  pose.  One  arm  is  raised,  the  hand  holding 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  173 

a  wand  round  which  the  snake  is  twined.  The  man's  head  is  bent 
backward  as  he  watches  the  reptile,  while  in  the  other  hand  he 
holds  the  small  pipe,  just  removed  from  his  mouth,  by  which  he 
has  created  the  charm.  The  left  foot  placed  firmly  upon  the 
ground  supports  the  weight  of  his  body,  the  other,  resting  lightly 
upon  the  lid  of  the  closed  basket,  suggests  the  idea  that  the 
snake  upon  the  wand  is  but  one  of  several — the  others  being 
confined  in  the  basket.  The  figure  is  in  a  sitting  posture,  and 
yet  there  is  no  relaxation  to  the  muscles.  We  can  see  that  the 
man  is  on  the  qui-vive,  though  the  moment  chosen  is  one  when 
he  naturally  would  be  perfectly  motionless.  Herein  lies  one  of 
the  greatest  merits  of  the  work  in  a  purely  artistic  sense.  To 
attempt  to  convey  a  sense  of  motion  in  a  statue  or  carving  is  not 
good  art.  Movement  belongs  entirely  to  the  domain  of  the  painter. 
The  Laocoon,  one  of  the  grandest  works  of  ancient  art  preserved 
to  us,  while  at  first  view  it  may  seem  to  contradict  our  assertion, 
will  be  found  on  a  careful  inspection  to  be  but  a  proof  of  what 
we  say;  and  we  do  not  remember  a  single  instance  of  what  is 
generally  acknowledged  to  represent  the  best  efforts  of  antique 
sculpture  which  can  be  cited  against  us. 

The  household  furniture  in  the  Exhibition  is  especially  worthy 
of  note.  The  English  division  abounds  with  beautiful  apartments, 
fitted  up  with  all  the  meublerie  of  a  parlor,  dining-room  or  bed- 
room. The  influence  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  and  of 
the  Schools  of  Industrial  Art,  which  derive  their  stimulus  from 
that  Museum,  is  nowhere  so  apparent. 

Of  woman's  work,  the  Exhibition  contains  .  many  examples — 
some  of  it,  such  as  the  carving  in  wood,  of  a  kind  heretofore 
monopolized  by  men,  and  others,  such  as  the  needle-work,  of  a 
character  truly  feminine.  In  this  latter  class,  decidedly  the  most 
interesting  display  in  the  Main  Building  is  the  contribution  sent 
from  London  by  the  Royal  School  of  Art  Needle-Work. 

This  School,  recently  founded  by  the  Princess  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  and  other  noble  ladies,  under  the  patronage^  of  the 
Queen,  has  for  its  object  the  revival  of  that  famous  embroidery 


174 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


and  other  work  of  the  needle  for  which  the  women  of  England 
were  so  famous  three  centuries  ago.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
at  that  time  England  had  the  reputation  of  making  the  finest 
ecclesiastical  vestments  in  the  world.  But  with  the  decay  of 


•The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


SCREEN. 

Royal  School  of  Art  Needle-Work. 


\  The  Main  Building. 


the  Church  came  a  corresponding  decadence  in  the  demand  for 
embroidery,  and  consequently  the  art  fell  into  disuse.  Chiefly  owing 
to  the  encouragement  now  given  to  it  by  the  Royal  School  is  this 
beautiful  branch  of  woman's  work  being  revived.  The  School 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


employ  the  very  first  artists  and  designers  of  England  to  furnish 
them  with  designs,  and  in  the  display  sent  to  this  country  are  patterns 
by  such  well-known  men  as  Morris  and  Crane  and  Pollen. 

We  select  for  illustration  a  Fire  Screen,  embroidered  in  a  very 
delicate  manner,  which  is  a  favorite  one  among  the  pupils  of  the 
School.  This  consists  in  copying  the  leaves  and  flowers  in  color  and 
veining  with  careful  exactness,  and  at  the  same  time  conventionalizing 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}  CHAIR. 

Royal  School  of  Art  Needle-  Work. 


{Main  Building. 


their  general  arrangement  to  allow  of  the  repetition  of  the  design  as 
part  of  one  pattern. 

The  second  piece  is  a  Chair,  also  embroidered — the  design  evi- 
dently the  work  of  an  artist,  probably  Crane  himself.  Work  of  this 
character  requires  long  practice  and  skill  with  the  needle,  as  well  as 
instruction  by  competent  individuals.  But  the  general  result  is  so 
satisfactory,  and  the  work  itself  is  so  thoroughly  feminine,  that  we 
sincerely  trust  something  of  the  same  kind  will  be  attempted  in  this 


1 76  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

country.  We  have  a  fancy  that  our  lack  of  art  schools  and  other 
institutions  where  women  can  learn  to  employ  themselves  usefully 
and  profitably  at  work  which  is  in  itself  interesting  and  beautiful,  is 
one  of  the  causes  which  drives  them  to  so  unsex  themselves  as  to 
seek  to  engage  in  men's  affairs.  Give  our  American  women  the  same 
art  facilities  as  their  European  sisters,  and  they  will  flock  to  the 
studios  and  let  the  ballot-box  alone. 

The  origin  of  glass  staining  is  a  disputed  honor,  and  in  such  con- 
flicts we  are  for  the  present  neutral.  Unlike  painting,  sculpture,  or 
the  many  branches  (such  as  mosaic)  cognate  to  perfect  architecture, 
glass  painting  was  an  art  exclusively  ecclesiastical  and  Christian  in 
its  origin  and  development.  It  was  the  application  of  the  principles 
and  ideas  of  mosaic  to  the  new  wants  of  architecture  for  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  church ;  and  the  early  masters  of  this  art  on  glass  atoned 
for  their  want  of  variety  and  pictorial  effect  by  the  beauty  and  bril- 
liancy of  their  ornaments  and  color.  With  them  a  window  was  an 
integral  portion  of  the  structure,  both  in  outline  and  quantity  and 
quality  of  decoration ;  and  many  of  the  specimens  executed  at  that 
early  period  were  esteemed  then,  and  are  yet  admired,  as  high 
examples  of  the  original  principles  on  which  the  art  was  based — 
depending  for  perfection,  as  it  did,  on  the  harmonious  arrangement 
of  colored  light. 

Marcilla,  the  Frenchman,  an  old  prior,  who  afterwards  made 
Arezzo  his  home,  so  constructed  his  designs  that  the  joinings  of  lead 
and  iron,  by  which  the  glass  was  bound  together,  formed  parts  of  his 
design ;  and  this  he  did  with  so  much  skill  that  his  works  could  not 
have  been  complete  without  them.  These  joinings  became  the 
deepest  shadow  of  a  fold,  or  the  sharp  relief  of  some  other  portion 
of  the  drapery  or  subject,  so  that  what  in  so  many  inferior  hands 
became  a  defect  was,  in  his,  converted  into  a  beauty  and  advantage. 
Besides,  he  only  used  two  shadow  colors,  but  these  with  such  dis- 
crimination and  effect,  that  his  glass  staining,  while  realizing  its  own 
proper  qualities  of  breadth  and  depth,  had  some  of  the  fascinations 
of  pictures.  In  France  and  the  Low  Countries  especially,  those  who 
followed  this  branch  became  historical  painters  upon  glass,  instead  of 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


177 


on  panel  or  on 
canvas — a  total 
perversion  of  the 
original  principle, 
the  one  being  to 
produce  light 
through  well  bal- 
anced color,  ar- 
ranged in  thought- 
ful form ;  the  other 
being  an  attempt 
to  imitate  oil  paint- 
ing or  fresco  in  a 
style  of  relief, 
which  must  make 
the  transmutation 
of  light  a  subordi- 
nate object,  and 
where  prevalence 
and  multiplicity 
of  shadow  must 
interfere  with  the 
breadth  and  bril- 
liancy of  the  gene- 
ral effect. 

Our  next  illus- 
tration is  an  admi- 
rably-designed 
Stained  Glass 
Window,  manu- 
factured by  Cox 
&  Sons,of  London, 
the  well-known 
ecclesiastical  deco- 
rators. The  sub- 


fi\\ 

STAINED   GLASS  WINDOW. 

By  Cox  &•  Sons,  London. 


ject  is  that  beau- 
tiful incident  in 
the  life  of  Christ 
when  he  gathered 
the  multitude 
about  him  on  the 
mountain  and 
spake  to  them 
those  words  of 
mercy  and  tender- 
ness and  love — so 
different  from  the 
lessons  of  the  el- 
ders— which  have 
come  down  to  us 
through  the  ages, 
bearing  their  sweet 
message  of  conso- 
lation and  hope  to 
many  a  weary 
heart;  their  divine 
wisdom  becoming 
but  the  more  ap- 
parent as  we  re- 
cognize what  those 
few  simple  pre- 
cepts, uttered 
eighteen  hundred 
years  ago,  have 
done  toward  revo- 
lutionizing the  na- 
tions of  the  earth  t 
and  bringing  civi- 
lization out  of  bar- 
barism. It  is  very 


1 78 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


right  and  proper  that  Christian  people  should  be  constantly  reminded 
of  this  sublime  occasion ;  and  no  means  are  so  effective  and  real 
than  to  aid  the  imagination  by  means  of  pictorial  representations. 
Long  before  the  art  of  painting  and  staining  glass  with  figures  was 
invented,  frescoing  and  panel-painting  were  in  common  use.  Yet  it 
was  a  glorious  thought  which  first  conceived  the  idea  of  making  the 
church-windows,  through  which  the  light  of  day  diffused  itself 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.'} 


GROUP  OF  CHURCH  PLATE. 

By  Cox  &•  Sons,  London. 


Main  Building. 


throughout  the  sanctuary,  a  medium  by  which  the  splendor  and 
glory  of  that  other  and  first  Light  should  be  typified  in  the  mind  of 
the  worshippers  with  colors  such  as  no  canvas  can  produce.  Of  all 
the  adornments  which  man,  in  his  desire  to  make  the  house  of  God 
beautiful,  has  brought  into  the  church,  the  stained  glass  window  is,  * 
to  our  thinking,  the  most  appropriate  and  beautiful.1  It  may  be 
simply  contrasted  masses  of  harmonious  color,  or  it  may  be  as  elabo- 
rate a  painting  as  the  subject  of  illustration;  and  in  this  respect  it  is 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


179 


one  of  the  noblest  forms  in  which  art  may  express   religion.     We 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."]  CORONA.  ( The  Maw  Bitilding. 

By  Hart,  Son  &•  Peard,  London. 

also  engrave,  on  page  178,  a  group  of  ecclesiastical  vessels  exhibited 


i8o 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


by  the  same  firm ;    and  on  page    1 79  a  Corona,  in  gilt  bronze,  by 
Messrs,  Hart,  Son  &  Peard,  of  London. 

When  we  remember  that  the  first  International  Exhibition  was 
held  in  a  palace  of  glass,  which  was  decorated  by  its  grand  fountain 
of  glass,  and  had  its  one  hundred  British  exhibitors  of  glass  in  all 


'The  Great  hxhibition,  1876."} 


GLASSWARE. 

By   fames  Green  &•  Nepheiu,  London. 


[Main  Building. 


its  various  applications,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  apathy  shown 
on  the  present  occasion,  only  a  few  exhibitors  of  all  kinds  having 
appeared. 

Mr.  J.  Green,  of  London,  and  Messrs.  Millar,  of  Edinburgh,  how- 
ever, did  credit  to  Great  Britain,  and  their  magnificent  display  will  long 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


181 


be  remembered  by  those  who  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  it.  From 
the  superb  chandelier,  which  was  so  conspicuous  an  object  in  the 
British  Department,  down  to  the  plainest  wine-glass  in  the  varied 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


GLASSWARE. 


[Main  Building. 


By  y.  Miller  &  Co.,  Edinburgh. 

exhibition  on  the  stands  below,  everything  told  of  purity  of  material, 
great  care  in  manufacture  and  good  taste  in  design. 

Another  old  and  esteemed  firm,  which  has  never  been  behindhand 
upon  such  occasions,  is  Messrs.  Miller  &  Co.,  of  Edinburgh.     The 


1 82  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

quality  of  the  specimens  they  exhibited  was  unsurpassed,  and  they 
were  as  remarkable  for  good  taste  in  design  and  decoration  as  for  the 
fine  quality  of  the  material.  The  specimens  we  engrave  on  pages 
1 80  and  181  are  fair  examples  of  their  best  work. 

There  were  several  table  services  of  new  designs  in  the  finest 
polished  cutting  executed  in  close  resemblance  to  engraved  work  by 
means  of  extremely  small  wheels  with  fine  edges.  The  designs  consist 
of  interlaced  bands  and  simple  bands  and  shields  of  the  most  minute 
cutting,  with  festoons  of  polished  beads  and  circlets  of  pearls.  The 
beads  and  pearls  are  polished  as  well  as  engraved  by  the  wheels. 

Of  the  regularly  engraved  designs  there  were  numerous  beautiful 
examples,  and  they  were  quite  free  from  that  too  common  error 
of  glass  cutters  and  engravers,  namely,  over-crowding.  It  is  too 
frequently  the  case  that  the  engraver  forgets  that  there  is  a  beauty 
in  the  material  itself  quite  apart  from  the  work  he  bestows  upon 
it,  and  in  his  anxiety  to  show  as  much  as  possible  of  his  skill  he 
covers  the  surface  and  confuses  the  work. 

Variety  is  essential  in  all  things,  and  in  nothing  more  than  in 
the  subject-matter  of  a  long  discourse.  The  carpets  displayed  in 
this  International  Exhibition  are,  with  some  striking  exceptions, 
very  different  in  design  from  those  exhibited  in  1867  or  1873. 
Then,  the  leading  specimens  were  not  coverings  for  floors,  but 
paneled  decorations  in  worsted  for  walls;  still  the  majority  of  what 
were  then  considered  the  great  works  in  carpet  were  all  of  the 
wall-decoration  character,  from  those  for  the  palace,  designed  by 
Louis  Gruner,  to  those  "got  up"  by  the  Kidderminster  manufacturers. 
Now,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  all  this  is  changed  so  far  as 
American  makers  are  concerned,  and  the  change  has  been  mainly 
in  the  right  direction.  That  such  an  alteration  should  have  pro- 
duced some  crudities  and  confusion  of  ideas  among  those  engaged 
was  only  to  be  expected,  and  therefore  faults  may  be  overlooked 
in  rapid  progress  in  a  legitimate  path;  but  false  principles  deserve 
no  such  tender  treatment,  because  if  these  are  left  to  luxuriate  with- 
out comment  or  rebuke,  the  results  may  be  as  radically  mischievous 
as  those  which  have  so  happily  been  discarded.  In  the  majority 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


'83 


of  cases    it    has    already   been    seen    that    a    carpet    is    something 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." 


CARPET. 

By  y.  Templeton  &  Cc 


[  The  Main  KuiMing. 


entirely  different   from  a  wall    decoration:    it   has    now  to  be  dis- 


184  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876, 

covered  that  it  is  something  equally  far  removed  from  a  tiled  floor 
on  the  one  hand,  and  a  French  shawl  ori  the  other,  and  that 
while  it  ought  to  have  a  distinct  quality  of  general  forms,  the 
quality  of  its  details  ought  to  be  equally  specific.  That,  for 
example,  bands  to  imitate  bedstead  bottoms,  although  placed  in 
diamond  shapes,  are  not  agreeable  things  to  walk  on,  any  more 
than  ribbons,  on  which  one  could  not  move  without  the  feeling 
of  danger  from  entanglement;  neither  is  it  more  pleasant  to  trample 
musical  instruments  under  foot,  however  beautifully  executed  in 
relief  through  weaving.  In  all  such  cases,  the  better  the  work, 
from  a  nationalistic  point  of  view,  the  worse  the  carpet  for  the 
legitimate  purposes  of  that  article,  because  all  such  objects  would 
naturally  be  avoided  in  places  of  traffic  or  promenade.  To  an 
American  housewife,  if  she  think  at  all  on  such  subjects  apart 
from  the  anxious  thought  of  out-rivalling  Mrs.  Grundy,  the  primary 
thoughts  about  a  carpet  are  that  it  shall  first  be  comfortable,  which 
includes  "tidy,"  and  that  it  shall  then  be  ornamental, — not  in  the 
sense  of  attracting  attention  by  its  gaudiness,  but  ornamental  in 
unison  with  all  other  objects  upon  it  and  around  it:  that  it  shall 
not  only  form  a  comfortable  and  solid  basis  for  the  feet,  but  that 
it  shall  "set  off"  the  furniture,  the  decorations  on  the  walls,  and 
if  necessary,  as  in  a  drawing-room,  the  inmates  of  the  room  also. 
None  would  seriously  differ  in  words  from  this  description  of  the 
legitimate  uses  of  carpets,  however  taste  might  differ  respecting 
the  style  that  would  best  secure  these  ends.  The  wall-decoration 
style  failed,  and  has  been  very  generally  discarded,  although  in 
some  instances  a  reflex  of  that  style  is  still  adopted  in  the  form 
of  what  may  be  called  single  paneled  carpets — a  style  so  certain 
to  follow  that  from  which  it  sprung,  that  nothing  but  the  names 
which  have  by  popular  rumor  adopted  it,  makes  it  of  more  than 
momentary  interest.  In  urging  objections  to  this  reflection  of  an 
exploded  style  for  carpets,  a  clear  distinction  must  be  made  between 
things  that  differ ;  and  because  these  carpets  have  borders,  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  all  borderings  are  wrong.  On  the  contrary, 
for  many  purposes  the  principle  of  a  border  judiciously  applied 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


185 


is  both  advantageous  and  ornamental.     We  engrave  two  specimens 


TAPESTRY. 
sifter  Thonvaldseri 's  John  and  Paul, 


of  worsted  work— one  a  carpet,  on  page  183,  exhibited  by  Messrs. 
Templeton  of  Glasgow;    the   other  on   this  page   is   portion  of  a 


i86 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


screen  carpet  exhibited  by  Messrs.  Tapling  of  London.  The  whole 
design  represents  Christ  and  the  Apostles  after  Thorwaldsen's 
designs;  the  carpet,  or  screen,  is  about  forty  feet  long  by  about 
fifteen  feet  in  height.  . 

From  the  exhibit  of  Mr.  Goggin  of  Dublin  we  engrave  on 
pages  1 86  and  187,  three  brooches  in  bog  oak.  For  many  years 
the  manufacture  of  bog  oak  into  articles  of  personal  adornment 
has  formed  an  important  branch  of  Irish  industry;  the  exhibit  of 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}       BROOCHES  OP  BOG  OAK. 

By  C.  Goggin,  Dublin. 


( The  Main  BuUding. 


Mr.  Goggin  fairly  represents  the  adaptability  of  the  material  for 
other  purposes,  such  as  small  boxes,  fans,  snuff-boxes,  &c.  It 
has  never  found  much  favor  in  this  country,  principally,  we  suppose, 
because  it  has  not  been  shown  to  our  public  in  its  most  attractive 
forms.  Mr.  Goggin's  exhibit  we  trust  will  create  a  demand  for  an 
article  always  chaste  in  itself  and  capable  of  being  put  into 
artistic  forms. 

As  there  is  no  branch  of  art  which  has  received  greater  impetus 
from  international  exhibitions    than  that  of  Ceramics,  it  was  only 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  187 

fair  to  suppose  that  the  International  Exhibition  of  1876  would 
present  a  remarkable  display  to  those  who  can  remember  the 
dawnings  of  the  revival  in  the  London  Universal  Exhibition  of 
1851.  Nor  have  such  expectations  been  disappointed;  at  no  era 
in  the  world's  history  has  such  a  show  of  man's  power  to  mould 
the  plastic  clay  into  forms  of  beauty  ever  been  seen.  Moreover, 
although  the  higher  branches  of  the  art  have  only  as  yet  been 
developed  in  a  few  well-known  centres,  it  is  abundantly  apparent 
in  the  present  exhibition  that  a  feeling  for  its  aesthetical  principles 
has  permeated  human  society  t6  such  an  extent  that  even  the 
humblest  potters  -in  the  most  distant  countries  show  that  they  are 
alive  to  the  necessity  of  supplementing  utility  with  good  taste. 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."]       BROOCH  OF  BOG  OAK.  {The  Main  Building 

Ky  C.  Goggin,  Dublin. 

To  those  who,  like  the  writer,  have  studied  the  history  and  effects 
of  great  international  exhibitions  from  their  dawn  in  1851  until 
the  present  time,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  interesting  and  instructive 
to  observe  what  powerful  and  manifold  interests  they  have  excited 
in  the  civilized  world;  but  in  no  branch  of  human  industry  is 
this  so  apparent  as  in  the  manufacture  of  Ceramic  and  vitreous 
wares.  In  our  own  country  especially,  the  pottery  of  the  people, 
which  is  the  truest  indication  of  the  good  or  bad  taste  of  a  nation, 
is  now  far  from  what  we  should  wish  it  to  be,  whilst  in  the  higher 
walks  of  the  art  we  stand  lower  than  any  other  civilized  nation. 
The  value  of  the  potter's  art  to  a  nation  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated, for  in  supplying  some  of  the  commonest  wants  of  the 


i88 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


household  the  eyes  of  those  using  them  can  unconsciously  be 
instructed  in  the  beauties  of  form  and  'color,  and  even  in  pictorial 
art.  And  so  certainly  is  this  accomplished  that  we  venture  to 
assert  without  fear  of  contradiction  that  the  pottery  of  to-day  will 
be  unsaleable  ere  half  a  decade  has  passed  over  us.  No  well 
educated  political  economist  of  the  present  day  will  deny  that  a 
nation's  wealth  is  increased  by  the  diffusion  of  good  taste  amongst 
the  people.  It  may  be  thought,  by  some,  from  too  cursorily 
glancing  at  our  ordinary  crockery  shops  that  there  is  no  great 
improvement,  and  that  very  bad  taste  is  abundantly  shown,  and  this 


DECORATED  DESSERT  PLATES. 

By  Dantells  &  Sons. 

is  true  in  the  abstract;  but  all  Europe,  and  perhaps  even  the  more 
ancient  civilizations  of  India,  China,  and  Japan,  are  in  a  transition 
state  in  matters  of  art.  A  new  Renaissance  has  commenced,  and 
in  spite  of  adverse  critics,  it  will  go  on.  It  may  be  that  the 
result  will  not  equal  its  predecessor,  but  if  the  history  of  the 
older  Renaissance  be  fairly  studied  it  will  be  seen  that  its  com- 
mencement was  certainly  not  more  promising,  and  we  venture  to 
say  not  so  much  so  as  the  present.  One  thing  is  quite  certain, 
the  artistic  results  of  the  Renaissance  period,  however  much  they 
influenced  the  tastes  of  the  wealthy,  had  but  little  influence  on 
the  masses,  whereas  the  movement  now  going  on  permeates  every 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  189 

class  of  society.  It  is  true  it  does  not  at  once  annihilate  the 
errors  of  the  past.  It  does  not  all  at  once  substitute  good  taste 
for  bad,  but  like  all  really  good  reforms  it  gently  replaces  the 
bad  by  the  good,  without  doing  violence  to  old  prejudices.  Inter- 
national exhibitions  and  their  far-seeing  originators  have  done  vast 
good  in  turning  the  downward  flow  of  national  taste  in  this  and 
other  countries,  and  in  every  branch  of  art  industry  their  good 
results  are  evident,  but  in  none  more  than  in  pottery,  and  porcelain, 
for  it  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  foster  art  tastes.  A  mass  of  clay 
may  be  formed  into  a  vessel  entirely  devoid  of  beauty  of  form, 
but  yet  quite  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  holding  a  fluid,  or 
other  matter;  hence,  when  it  has  added  to  it  another  qualification, 
that  of  pleasing  the  eye  by  its  beauty  of  form,  color,  or  decoration, 
it  becomes  an  art  educator,  and  when  this  quiet  and  unobtrusive 
instructor  mixes  up  with  our  every-day  life,  it  is  sure  in  the  end 
to  succeed,  and  if  well  directed  will  diffuse  true  artistic  taste  in 
every  home  to  which  it  finds  access.  Hence  it  is  that  the  love 
of  pottery  and  porcelain  has  a  strong  hold  upon  those  who  have 
studied  it  and  learned  its  power  as  a  cultivator  of  taste  for  art, 
and  although  they  are  often  thoughtlessly  ridiculed  for  it,  they  are 
nevertheless  right,  and  in  due  time  the  correctness  of  their  taste 
will  be  admitted. 

As  specimens  of  the  progress  of  the  art  in  England,  we  engrave 
four  other  dessert  plates,  two  from  the  exhibit  of  Messrs.  Daniells,  on 
page  189,  and  two,  on  page  190,  from  the  exhibit  of  Messrs.  Brown- 
Westhead,  Moore  &  Co.  Twenty-five  years  ago,  such  work  could  not 
have  been  found  in  an  English  pottery ;  in  less  than  ten  years  an 
American  pottery  will  equal,  if  not  excel,  such  productions. 

It  is  no  easy  task  to  select  from  the  extensive  contributions  of 
Messrs.  Elkington  &  Co.  what  will  best  exhibit  the  taste  and  skill 
manifested  in  their  productions.  There  is  one  object,  however, 
which  at  once  arrests  the  attention  of  every  visitor,  for  there  is  no 
finer  work  of  its  class  in  the  whole  building.  It  is  a  beautiful 
repousse  table.  The  design  and  the  execution  of  the  whole  of  the 
ornamental  portions  are  by  M.  Morel  Ladeuil,  who  was  occupied 


190 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


nearly  three  years  upon  the  work.  The  surface  has  a  circle  of 
figures  embodying  the  dreams  of  the  three  figures  sleeping  below — 
a  minstrel,  a  soldier  and  an  agriculturist,  who  are  under  the 
influence  of  the  goddess  above,  in  the  act  of  strewing  poppies 
around.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  Messrs.  Elkington,  with  the 
assistance  of  their  artists,  have  brought  the  working  of  precious,  as 
well  as  some  of  the  inferior  metals  to  the  highest  point  of  per- 
fection. Gold  and  silver,  oxidized  metal,  bronze  and  steel,  are  seen 
wrought  respectively  in  objects  of  real  artistic  value,  from  a  lady's 
card-case  or  an  infant's  christening-cup,  to  the  massive  candelabrum 
or  salver,  the  graceful  statue  and  the  glittering  armor  of  chivalry. 


DECORATED  DESSERT  PLATES. 

By  Brown-lVesthead,  Moore  &  Co.,  Staffordshire  Potteries. 

In  order  to  do  all  the  justice  in  our  power  to  so  large  and  varied  a 
display,  we  engrave,  in  addition  to  the  repousse  table  on  page  192, 
one  of  their  bronze  groups  on  page  193,  and  a  vase  and  dish  on 
pages  195  and  196.  The  vase  is  ornamented  with  allegorical  figures 
and  reliefs  emblematical  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  as  typified  by  Apollo 
and  Diana.  The  four  medallions  surrounding  the  centre  represent 
the  four  Elements.  The  vase  and  dish  are  of  silver  and  were 
designed  by  M.  Willius. 

The  history  of  the  origin  of  the  Indian  manufacture  of  shawls  is 
not  known,  but  it  is  certainly  very  much  more  ancient  than  the  data 
hitherto  possessed  on  the  subject  would  indicate.  The  oldest  records 
go  back  to  two  centuries  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  In  the  ancient 


THE  MAIN  B  UILDING.  191 

patriarchal  times  of  the  race,  and  from  the  Mohammedan  epoch  up 
to  our  own  times,  the  house  manufacture  of  Cashmere  shawls  appears 
to  have  incurred  but  few  vicissitudes ;  but  there  is  reliable  indication 
that  an  important  market  for  these  goods  existed  in  all  parts  of  the 
East,  and  that  it  flourished  in  every  direction.  The  tedious  and 
complicated  process  of  manufacture  was  never  in  a  position  to  satisfy 
the  demand,  and  this  was  the  first  cause  of  a  great  rise  in  the  price 
of  the  article.  About  twenty  years  ago,  under  the  regency  of  Gholab 
Sing,  this  branch  of  manufacture  underwent  a  great  change  by  the 
emigration  of  the  best  weavers  of  shawls  in  Cashmere,  in  flight  from 
the  oppression  of  the  chief,  to  British  territory  in  and  around  Lahore, 
where  they  settled  and  made  this  neighborhood  the  centre  of  a  shawl 
manufacture,  which  in  extent  far  surpasses  that  of  Cashmere.  But 
the  migration  of  the  weavers  was  not  so  beneficial  to  the  artistic 
value  of  the  article.  The  predominating  influence  of  foreign  agents 
from  England,  and  more  especially  from  France,  has  supplied  a  great 
increase  of  capital  and  enormously  increased  the  quantity  of  the  pro- 
duce ;  but  the  pattern  begins  visibly  to  lose  its  originality.  Ominous 
signs  of  decay  are  already  to  be  traced  in  two  circumstances :  the 
enormous  increase  of  the  price  of  older  shawls,  and  the  competition, 
now  very  great,  among  the  few  native  workers  who  keep  aloof  from 
occidental  influence,  and  'deal  with  their  produce  among  each  other. 
At  the  head  of  this  national  industrial  movement  stand  mostly  indi- 
vidual native  chiefs.  Those  among  English  manufacturing  and 
export  firms  who  sent  the  best  articles  were  the  committees  of 
Madras  and  the  Punjaub,  Devisahai  and  Chamba  Mai  in  Amritsur, 
Ahmad  Shah  and  Ahsan  Shah  in  Ludhyana ;  finally,  the  well-known 
house  of  Farmer  &  Rogers,  of  London,  from  whose  exhibit  we 
engrave  portions  of  shawls  on  page  198. 

The  Punjaub  exhibited  decidedly  the  most  original  patterns  and 
the  purest  webs ;  the  London  house  some  richer  sorts.  It  is 
uncertain,  from  the  defective  description,  to  whom  the  striped  shawl 
patterns  belonged;  we  believe  to  the  Mohammedan  firm  Ahmad. 
They  indicate  a  lamentable  falling  off  in  this  beautiful  branch  of 
manufacture.  Some  six  or  eight  shawls  displayed  by  Farmer  & 


I94  THE   GREAT  EXHIBITION,  2876. 

with  the  beautiful  productions  of  India,  and  that  by  material 
mechanical  improvements  established  the  continental  shawl-weaving 
on  a  firm  basis,  the  country  whose  production  in  this  branch  is  not 
to  be  lightly  esteemed,  was  represented  at  the  Exhibition  by  only 
one — and  that  one  Scotch-— of  her  manufacturers  of  shawls.  At 
London,  in  1862,  there  were  twelve  firms  on  the  spot;  at  Paris,  in 
1867,  there  were  only  four;  in  1873,  there  was  only  one — Kerr, 
Scott  &  Co.,  of  Edinburgh  and  London.  The  shawls  sent  by  this 
firm  do  not  display  the  most  perfect  designs,  nor  the  most  successful 
shades  of  color,  whilst  they  contain  many  kinds  of  wool. 

The  collection  of  ware  of  Indian  manufacture  gave  a  fair  repre- 
sentation of  a  native  industry.  The  pieces  exhibited  are  the  property 
of  the  Indian  Museum,  in  London. 

Nearly  all  of  these  ornamentally  modeled  vessels,  edged  round 
with  fine  outlines  in  profile,  bear  evidence  of  their  community  of 
origin  from  the  metallic  art,  which  reached  such  eminent  develop- 
ment and  importance  in  India  in  ancient  times.  From  this  art  they 
derive  the  beautifully  winged  and  fragile  handles  upon  the  vessels  ; 
the  long,  narrow  necks  of  the  vases,  and  even  the  ornaments  intro- 
duced by  paintings  here  and  there,  are  significant  of  the  same 
intention,  which  we  find  elaborated  more  perfectly  in  the  Indian 
silversmith's  work.  The  reason  that  the  prominent  peculiarities  of 
Indian  pottery  which  we  indicate  here  were  not  so  strikingly  charac- 
teristic of  any  of  the  exhibited  objects,  lies  in  no  small  degree 
in  the  corruption  and  decadence  of  Indian  manufacture,  which  has 
indubitably  spread  during  the  last  few  years  over  the  most  civilized 
portions  of  the  country.  With,  a  very  just  appreciation  of  the  inesti- 
mable wealth  that  lies  hidden  in  the  national  home  industry  of  the 
East,  the  English  Government  has  attempted  to  counteract  this  evil 
by  the  foundation  of  the  Madras  School  of  Arts,  and  by  the  sending 
out  of  a  Director,  the  principal  part  of  whose  mission  consists  in  the 
education  of  the  native  youth  in  art  industries.  The  results  already 
obtained  are  completely  satisfactory.  A  collection  of  good  models 
has  been  made,  native  teachers  have  been  instructed,  and  the  works 
of  the  pupils  give  evidence  of  very  great  excellence.  The  effort  to 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


preserve  relics  of  ancient  Indian  art  led  in  the  same  way  to  the 
creation  of  models -of  the  ornamentation  of  the  ancient  Hindoo 
temples,  made  in  the  same  school,  in  terra  cotta ;  a  number  of  such 
ornaments  were  to  be  seen  in  the  Exhibition.  Besides  these,  beau- 
tifully ornamented  Alkarazas  and  other  vessels  were  exhibited. 


Great  Exhibition, 


PHCEBUS   VASE  AND   DISH. 

Ry  Eikington  &•  Co. 


\The  Main  Building. 


The  Baroda  work — black  vessels  with  inlaid  silver  ornament — 
showed  most  distinctly  its  derivation  from  metallic  art.  Here,  as  in 
the  flat-shaped  vessels,  large  flowers  are  the  chief  part  of  the  design 
of  the  ornamentation.  A  similar  combination  of  pottery  and 
metallic  ornament  was  exhibited  in  the  brown-black  vessels  sent 


196 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


from  the  Punjaub  and  Azimgurh,  generally  containing  squamiform 
inlaid  silver  wire. 

The  Water-cooler,  which  we  engrave  on  page  200,  and  the  Bowl 
on  page  201,  are  taken  from  the  exhibition  of  the  Indian  Museum. 


TOP  OF  REPOUSSE  SILVER  TABLE. 

By  Elkinrton  &•  Co. 


England   may  well   be   proud   of  the   exhibition    made   by  her 
colonies   at   our    Centennial    Fair.     India,  Australia,  New  Zealand, 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  197 

Ceylon,  British  Guiana,  and  the  far-away  settlements  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  the  Bahamas,  the  Bermudas  and  Trinidad,  Queensland  and 
the  Canadas,  each  and  all  have  come  to  us,  their  elder  sister,  proud 
to  show  us  and  each  other  the  evidence  of  their  young,  vigorous 
life.  Yet  some  of  these  colonies  have  already  reached  a  maturity 
when  they  begin  to  look  forward  to  being  their  own  masters ;  and  it 
is  likely,  before  many  more  years  have  passed,  that  the  mother- 
country  will  assist  them  to  set  up  governments  for  themselves. 
England  is  now  a  wiser  mother  than  when  she  angered  us  to  break 
the  leading-strings.  She  realizes  that  her  other  children,  now 
growing  up  around  her,  will  some  day  want  to  be  powers  unto 
themselves ;  and  instead  of  discouraging,  she  encourages  them  in 
the  idea.  Such  a  policy  gives  the  colonies  a  healthier,  manlier 
growth.  When  they  achieve  independence  they  will  have  nothing 
but  affection  for  the  mother  who  nurtured  them,  and  they  will  stand 
strong  and  ever  ready  to  resent  any  insult  that  may  be  offered  to  her. 

It  is  positively  amazing  to  contemplate  the  progress  which  these 
colonies  have  made  in  the  last  few  years.  In  the  Canadian  Court  we 
see  the  largest  evidence  of  this,  because  from  her  neighborhood  she 
could  make  the  most  general  display.  There  is  in  this  section  an 
evidence  of  refinement  and  art-culture,  as  well  as  of  solid  progress 
that  shows  a  wonderful  maturity  of  civilization.  Look  where  we 
will,  among  the  ceramics,  the  textiles,  the  metal-work,  we  see  this. 

In  metal-work  there  is  especial  excellence.  Take,  for  example, 
the  subject  of  illustration  on  page  203.  It  is  a  Wrought  Iron  Gate, 
manufactured  by  Messrs.  H.  R.  Ives  &  Co.,  of  Montreal.  We  know 
of  no.  more  thoroughly  artistic  example  of  this  kind  in  the  whole 
Exhibition,  and  this  is  saying  a  great  deal,  for  England  contains 
some  splendid  pieces. 

Notice  with  what  rare  skill  solidity  has  been  combined  with 
lightness.  Each  gate  is  thoroughly  braced  by  the  standards  and 
cross-pieces  containing  the  panels.  This  first  and  chief  point 
accomplished,  the  artist  can  exercise  his  fancy  upon  the  decoration. 
He  has  chosen  a  vine  as  his  theme,  and  has  woven  it  between  the 
uprights  in  a  graceful  and  symmetrically  conventionalized  way. 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,   1876. 


With  the  same  motive  he  has  ornamented  the  arches  formed  by  the 
curved  braces  with  a  whorl   of  leaves,  tendrils  and  blossoms,  and 


again   the   foliation   appears    in    the    finials    to    the    uprights   and 
standards.     We  bespeak  for  this  piece  of  work  a  degree  of  attention 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  199 


on  the  part  of  our  readers,  not  only  because  of  the  neighborhood 
from  which  it  comes,  but  because  of  its  own  intrinsic  excellence. 

We  must  now  bid  adieu  to  England  and  her  Colonies,  the 
latter  of  which  make  really  magnificent  displays  of  raw  material. 
Shut  out  from  all  the  rest  of  the  world,  England  can  enjoy  all 
the  productions  of  the  most  variable  climates  by  simply  drawing 
upon  her  speculative  sons  who  have  ventured  into  Arctic  regions 
for  furs:  Canada  to  till  the  soil;  the  tropics  to  raise  rice,  coffee, 
or  sugar;  or  the  antipodes  to  search  for  gold  or  to  rear  the  wool- 
growing  sheep. 

It  certainly  is  the  very  antipodes  from  New  South  Wales  to 
Sweden  or  Norway,  but  it  is  easy  enough  to  step  from  the  one 
to  the  other  in  this  palace  on  the  Landsdown  plateau  of  Phila- 
delphia. Crowds  of  people  were  constantly  found  around  the 
model  illustrations  of  Swedish  and  Norwegian  manners  and  customs; 
whilst  those  whose  interest  drew  them  to  the  rear  of  the  Swedish 
court  were  gratified  by  seeing  the  fine  trophy  composed  entirely 
of  Swedish  iron.  '  This  trophy  was  designed  to  represent  one  of 
the  Viking  kings  starting  off  on  a  marauding  expedition  on  the 
high  seas.  In  the  fore-part  of  the  Swedish  court  was  a  fine  col- 
lection of  ceramics. 

The  group  of  articles  which  we  engrave  on  page  204,  in 
variety  of  form  and  material  give  an  excellent  idea  of  the  character 
of  the  exhibit  made  by  the  Gustafsberg  Company,  of  Sweden. 
Here  is  terra  cotta,  parian,  imitation  majolica,  and  different  qualities 
of  porcelain.  The  large  vases  on  either  side  of  the  engraving 
are,  as  will  be  seen  on  inspection,  different  views  of  the  same 
piece,  which  occupies  the  place  of  honor  in  the  Messrs.  Gustafsberg 
exhibit,  and  is,  undoubtedly,  the  chef  d'ceuvrc  of  the  collection. 
This  vase  stands  about  four  feet  high,  and  froni  the  foot  upwards 
is  one  solid  .piece  of  porcelain.  The  general  color  of  the  piece 
is  a  clear  sky-blue  of  remarkable  evenness.  The  border  around 
the  foot,  the  channels  around  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  the 
scroll-work  above  and  the  relief-work  generally  are  gilded  with 
gold.  The  zone  around  the  middle  of  the  vase  contains  a  finely- 


2OO 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


painted  subject  representing  the  procession  of  the  Arts.  The  color- 
ing of  the  figures  is  very  rich  and  varied,  and  they  are  seen  with 
clearness  against  the  back-ground  of  pure  white  enamel. 

A  vase  of  Persian  shape,  decorated  with  figure-subjects  of 
Peace  and  War,  crowns  the  group.  Other  vases  of  different  styles 
and  shapes  can  be  seen  dispersed  throughout  the  collection.  Fine 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." \ 


WATER  COOLERS. 

Indian  Department. 


\  The  Main  Building. 


porcelain  dinner-services,  plainly  but  richly  decorated  with  bands 
of  color,  will  be  observed  also.  An  excellent  beer- mug  of  cream- 
colored  stone,  with  blue  enamel  in  relief  ornamentation  after  the 
German  style,  is  here,  and  also  a  ewer  of  an  Urbino  pattern 
in  majolica.  A  fine  group  called  "The  Grapplers,"  and  numerous 
busts  and  statuettes  in  parian,  will  be  observed,  as  also,  standing 
just  back  of  the  majolica  fruit-dish,  a  pair  of  covered  vases 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  201 

in  parian  of  the  open-work  or  basket-pattern  which  is  so  much 
admired. 

The  basket  of  silver  filagree,  which  we  engrave  on  page  205,  is 
from  the  exhibit  of  M.  Trostrup  of  Norway,  and  the  two  card- 
cases,  on  pages  206  and  207,  are  from  the  exhibit  of  Signer  Emile 
Forte  of  Genoa. 

The  extent  of  the  display  made  by  Italy  in  various  branches 
of  the  manufacture  of  ornaments  applicable  to  personal  decoration 
is  altogether  so  much  beyond  what  the  general  visitor  would 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  r8j6"\  BOWL.  [Main  Building. 

Indian  Department, 

expect,  that  we  anticipate  comparatively  few  persons  will  have  either 
time  or  inclination  to  examine  into  the  details  of  this  remarkable 
exposition  of  the  industry,  chiefly  of  the  cities  of  Florence  and 
Milan.  With  the  limited  space  at  our  disposal  it  would  be  useless 
to  attempt  to  discuss  the  merits,  or  even  the  leading  features  of  the 
Italian  exhibit,  arranged  for  the  inspection  of  the  public  upon  the 
centre  of  the  court,  inasmuch  as  most  visitors  would  make  a  point 
of  examining  them  from  the  prominent  nature  of  the  display, 
whilst  scores,  probably  hundreds,  of  articles  of  jewelry,  the  pro- 
duction of  the  skilled  workers  of  other  countries  for  commercial 


202 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


-  The  Great  hxhibition.  1876."]  WROUGHT  IRON   GATE.  [The  Main  Building, 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  20 


purposes,  equally,  perhaps  more  artistic,  though  less  genuine, 
would  be  overlooked. 

No  person  could  walk  along  the  Italian  court  where  the  mass 
of  the  bijouterie  of  Italy  is  exposed,  without  being  forcibly  struck 
with  the  immense  amount  of  skilled  labor  and  true  artistic  power 
evidenced  in  the  examples  exhibited.  We  doubt  whether  any 
other  country  in  the  world  could  have  produced  such  specimens 
of  exquisite  handicraft,  of  fanciful  design,  of  artistic  invention; 
or  as  a  whole,  shown  so  much  really  good  taste,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered to  what  a  fearful  lack  of  taste  the  manufacturer  of  these 
articles  has  to  cater,  either  in  the  dealer  who  stands  between  him 
and  the  public,  or  in  that  same  public  itself:  since  in  few  things 
do  we  see  such  an  utter  want  of  everything  like  fixity  of  principle 
as  in  the  selection  of  personal  ornaments  in  gold,  silver,  and 
precious  stones,  or  their  imitations. 

In  too  many  instances  we  regret  to  find  that  the  absurd  attempt 
at  an  absolute  imitation  of  natural  forms  does  much  to  detract 
from  the  real  merit  of  otherwise  excellent  examples.  This  is 
peculiarly  manifest  in  the  articles  chiefly  intended  for  exportation. 
It  is,  however,  in  the  very  highest  class  of  jewelry,  and  the  combina- 
tion of  precious  stones  with  gold  and  silver,  that  the  true  strength  of 
the  Italian  designer  and  art-workman  in  this  spccialite  is  most 
evident.  The  works  exhibited  by  Salvo,  Bellezza,  Castellani,  and 
Policarpo  would  alone  suffice  to  prove  this.  In  Castellani's  display 
there  are  a  few  old  friends  of  1873,  not  in  any  degree  unwelcome; 
whilst  there  is  the  same  unrivalled  power  in  smaller  articles, 
carried  to  a  still  greater  extent,  which  so  thoroughly  awakened 
public  attention  in  the  Vienna  exhibition.  Some  of  the  brooches, 
bracelets,  &c.,  in  oxidized  silver,  would  defy  Cellini  himself  to  sur- 
pass them.  One  exquisite  little  bijou  is  a  smelling-bottle,  decorated 
with  a  Cupid  and  an  interwoven  arrangement  of  ivy.  Anything 
more  perfect  it  is  impossible  to  conceive.  Another,  too,  is  a  brooch, 
in  oxidized  silver,  of  a  guardian  angel,  the  arrangement  of  whose 
wings,  in  conjunction  with  a  cross  which  forms  the  base  of  the 
composition,  is  most  happily  managed. 


204 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Bellezza's  works  are  not  a  whit  inferior,  though  somewhat 
different  in  certain  points.  He  exhibits,  amongst  a  variety  of 
smaller  examples  of  his  art,  a  Prie-Dieu,  in  gold,  silver,  and 
enamel.  The  mosaic  imitations  are  of  great  beauty,  but  the  large 
ornament  at  the  back  is  very  much  out  of  proportion,  and  gives 
a.  littleness  to  the  other  details  of  the  work  by  contrast. 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  r876.  ']      GROUP  OF  ARTISTIC  POTTERY. 
By  the  Gustafsbtrg  Co.,  Sweden, 


{The  Alain  Building. 


Francati  and  Santamaria  exhibit  bracelets  of  extraordinary  beauty 
in  design  and  execution,  as  also  enamels  of  great  excellence. 
Our  notes  abound  in  quotations  of  examples  of  excellence  in 
gold  and  silver  filigree  work,  of  bouquets  in  paste  and  diamonds, 
of  imitations  of  precious  stones  and  gold  and  silver  for  ecclesi- 
astical purposes;  as  also  of  theatrical  jewelry,  arms,  and  armor. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


205 


Seal  handles,  snuff-boxes,  cigar-cases,  and  the  thousand-and-one 
articles  comprised  under  the  general  head  of  "Necessaires  et  Trous- 
ses  de  Voyoge"  and  "Articles  de  Fantaisie"  with  which  the  Italian 
court  is  filled  to  repletion,  also  claim  attention,  which  can  only  be 
given  here  by  urging  the  necessity  for  more  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  producers  of  these  articles  in  America  to  the  activity  of  the 
Italian, ,  French,  and  English  manufacturers;,  and  above  all,  the 
necessity  for  a  better  special  education  for  our  artisans  engaged 
in  their  production.  This  last  is  the  great  lesson  taught  to  the 
employers  of  skilled  labor  in  America,  and  which  sooner  or  later 
they  must  attend  to.  If  the  workman  of  Newark,  N.  J.  was  lifted 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876. "J 


BASKET  IN  FILIGREE  SILVER. 

By  Trostrup  of  Norway. 


[  The  Main  Building. 


more  towards  the  dignity  of  the  artist  by  early  and  sound  instruc- 
tion in  the  artistic  principles  of  his  trade,  there  is  no  reason  why 
he  should  be  a  whit  behind  his  fellow-worker  of  the  Italian  botega. 

Probably  the  great  fault  of  the  Italian  jewelry  is  its  excess  of 
ornament;  and,  frequently,  the  superabundance  of  color  introduced 
by  the  agency  of  enamel,  or  colored  stones.  In  this,  however, 
we  see  the  peculiar  national  genius  of  the  producers;  since  much 
the  same  remark  has  been  made  of  nearly  every  department  of 
Italian  industry. 

The  articles  we  engrave  on  pages  208  to  212,  are  from  the 
exhibits  of  Signors  Geraldini,  Salvo,  and  Bellezza,  which  give 


206 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


nearly  as  full  a  representation  of  this  branch  of  Italian  industry 
as  our  space  will  permit. 

But  the  artist  of  Italian  workers  in  the  precious  metals  is  Signor 
Castellani  of  Rome,  a  necklace  by  whom  we  engrave  on  page  213. 
This  necklace  is  a  correct  imitation  of  the  Etruscan  method  of 
working  in  gold. 

The  old  Etruscan  artists  used  mechanical  agents  which  are  now 


CARD-CASE  IN  FILIGREE  SILVER. 

By  E  Forte  of  Genoa. 

unknown  to  us,  and  were  able  to  separate  and  join  pieces  of  gold 
hardly  perceptible  to  the  naked  eye.  Modern  workmen  have  failed 
in  their  attempts  exactly  to  imitate  the  old  ornaments.  Nor  do  we 
know  how  the  ancient  processes  of  melting,  soldering  and  wire 
drawing  were  carried  on.  We  are  left,  therefore,  to  admire  not 
alone  the  elegance  and  beauty  of  the  Greek  and  Etruscan  granulated 
and  filigree  works  in  gold,  but  the  mode  of  execution  also. 

In  the   East  Indies,  at  the  present  day,  may  be  frequently  seen 


THE  MATN  BUILD  TNG. 


207 


wandering  workers  in  gold  and  silver  who  carry  their  tools  about 
with  them,  and,  where  employment  can  be  found,  soon  transform 
coins  and  bits  of  the  precious  metal  into  filigree  jewels  or  orna- 
ments, somewhat  resembling  the  antique,  whilst  still  following 


CARD-CASE  IN  FILIGREE  SILVER. 

By  E.  Forte,  of  Genoa. 

their  own  national  and  traditional  style.     These  may  give  us  some 
idea  how  the  early  Greeks  and  Etruscans  worked. 

Signer  Castellani  has  taken  great  pains  for  many  years  in 
endeavoring  to  discover  the  primitive  mode  of  working  the  delicate 
gold  ornaments  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  tombs.  He  says 
that  the  means  of  soldering  was  the  first  problem :  and  the  almost 
invisible  grains  of  gold,  like  fine  sand,  which  give  such  a  distinct 
character  to  Etruscan  ornaments,  presented  nearly  insurmountable 


208  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

difficulty.  He  read  the  treatises  of  mediaeval  goldsmiths,  and  the 
earlier  books  of  Theophilus  and  Pliny ;  he  inquired  everywhere  in 
Italy  of  all  classes  of  jewelers ;  he  made  innumerable  attempts,  with 
all  kinds  of  chemicals  and  the  most  powerful  solvents,  to  compose 
the  proper  solder.  At  last  he  found  some  of  the  old  processes  still 
employed  in  a  remote  district,  hidden  in  the  recesses  of  the  Apen- 
nines far  from  the  great  towns.  Bringing  away  a  few  workmen,  he 
gave  them  much  more  instruction  and  at  last  succeeded,  not  perhaps 
in  equalling,  but  certainly  in  rivalling,  the  brooches,  chains  and 
other  specimens  of  ancient  Etruria  and  Greece. 

The  revival  of  learning  in  Italy  was  accompanied  by  other  cir- 
cumstances which  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  arts,  and  par- 
ticularly on  the  sumptuary  arts  of  the  century.  While  the  nations 
of  Europe  were  more  or  less  convulsed  with  war,  it  was  not  easy 
or  possible  for  the  inhabitants,  even  the  wealthy,  to  do  much  in 
furnishing  dwelling-houses  with  any  kind  of  comfort.  Rich  furni- 
ture consisted  in  a  few  costly  objects  and  in  hangings,  such  as  could 
be  carried  about  on  sumpter-horses  or  in  wagons,  and,  with  the 
addition  of  rough  benches,  tables  and  bedsteads,  could  make  bare 
walls  look  gay  and  comfortable,  and  offer  sufficient  accommodation 
in  the  empty  halls  of  granges  and  manors  seldom  lived  in,  for  the 
occasions  of  a  visit  or  a  temporary  occupation. 

A  beautiful  example  of  the  wonderful  wood-carving  for  which  the 
Italians  have  been  famous  since  mediaeval  times  is  the  Book-case  exhi- 
bited in  the  Italian  Court.  It  is  designed  and  carved  by  Prof.  Egisto 
Gijani,  of  Florence,  after  the  style  practised  in  that  city  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  material  is  European  walnut,  very  highly  polished.  The 
base  and  plinth  are  inlaid  with  panels  composed  of  figures,  grotesques 
and  masques  carved  in  very  high  relief,  with  supporting  columns  at 
the  sides  of  a  singularly  ornate  design.  A  group  of  cupids  standing 
upon  a  vase  support  another  vase  from  which  the  slender  shaft  of 
the  column  proper  rises.  Surmounting  the  top  is  a  symbolic  group 
of  figures  supporting  a  medallion  bust  of  Lincoln. 

It  is*  in  looking  at  such  work  as  this  that  we  realize  how  greatly 
the  knowledge  of  what  is  fine  and  beautiful  in  decorative  carving  in 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


209 


wood  is  due  to  the  opportunity  for  study  and  training  which  a 
country  like  Italy,  so  rich  in  the  best  examples  of  this  art  and  of  art 
in  general,  can  afford.  The  study  of  the  wonderful  carvings  at 
Perugia  or  of  similar  works  of  the  highest  excellence  inspires  the 
artisan  to  attempt  to  imitate  them.  Even  if  he  fails  he  has  exercised 
certain  art  impulses  in  the  right  direction;  and  this  process  acting 
through  the  individual  on  the  masses,  has  occasioned  that  modern 
Renaissance  that,  awakening  to  the  glory  of  mediaeval  art,  is  now 
manifesting  itself  throughout  Italy  in  two  ways — the  one  in  the 


'•  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


GOLD    EARRINGS. 

By  Geraldini,  o_f  Rome. 


{The  Main  Building 


astonishingly  clever  imitations  of  tricento,  qnattricento  and  especially 
cinquecento  work,  which  is  calculated  to  deceive  even  the  shrewdest 
connoisseurs  by  the  likeness  to  the  original ;  and  the  other  in  an 
endeavor  to  do  true,  honest  work,  using  the  old  masters  simply  as 
instructors  who  shall  guide  the  student  and  encourage  him  to  develop 
his  own  ideas,  and  not  become  a  servile  imitator. 

The  immense  influx  into  Italy  of  wealthy  amateurs  and  igno- 
ramuses, the  one  anxious  to  get  good  specimens  of  good  mediaeval 
work,  and  therefore  willing  to  pay  liberally,  the  other  determined  to 
have  something  "  antique,"  because  it  seems  to  be  the  correct  thing 
to  have,  and  as  a  consequence  ready  to  pay  exorbitant  prices,  has 


208  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

difficulty.  He  read  the  treatises  of  mediaeval  goldsmiths,  and  the 
earlier  books  of  Theophilus  and  Pliny ;  he  inquired  everywhere  in 
Italy  of  all  classes  of  jewelers ;  he  made  innumerable  attempts,  with 
all  kinds  of  chemicals  and  the  most  powerful  solvents,  to  compose 
the  proper  solder.  At  last  he  found  some  of  the  old  processes  still 
employed  in  a  remote  district,  hidden  in  the  recesses  of  the  Apen- 
nines far  from  the  great  towns.  Bringing  away  a  few  workmen,  he 
gave  them  much  more  instruction  and  at  last  succeeded,  not  perhaps 
in  equalling,  but  certainly  in  rivalling,  the  brooches,  chains  and 
other  specimens  of  ancient  Etruria  and  Greece. 

The  revival  of  learning  in  Italy  was  accompanied  by  other  cir- 
cumstances which  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  arts,  and  par- 
ticularly on  the  sumptuary  arts  of  the  century.  While  the  nations 
of  Europe  were  more  or  less  convulsed  with  war,  it  was  not  easy 
or  possible  for  the  inhabitants,  even  the  wealthy,  to  do  much  in 
furnishing  dwelling-houses  with  any  kind  of  comfort.  Rich  furni- 
ture consisted  in  a  few  costly  objects  and  in  hangings,  such  as  could 
be  carried  about  on  sumpter-horses  or  in  wagons,  and,  with  the 
addition  of  rough  benches,  tables  and  bedsteads,  could  make  bare 
walls  look  gay  and  comfortable,  and  offer  sufficient  accommodation 
in  the  empty  halls  of  granges  and  manors  seldom  lived  in,  for  the 
occasions  of  a  visit  or  a  temporary  occupation. 

A  beautiful  example  of  the  wonderful  wood-carving  for  which  the 
Italians  have  been  famous  since  mediaeval  times  is  the  Book-case  exhi- 
bited in  the  Italian  Court.  It  is  designed  and  carved  by  Prof.  Egisto 
Gijani,  of  Florence,  after  the  style  practised  in  that  city  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  material  is  European  walnut,  very  highly  polished.  The 
base  and  plinth  are  inlaid  with  panels  composed  of  figures,  grotesques 
and  masques  carved  in  very  high  relief,  with  supporting  columns  at 
the  sides  of  a  singularly  ornate  design.  A  group  of  cupids  standing 
upon  a  vase  support  another  vase  from  which  the  slender  shaft  of 
the  column  proper  rises.  Surmounting  the  top  is  a  symbolic  group 
of  figures  supporting  a  medallion  bust  of  Lincoln. 

It  is*  in  looking  at  such  work  as  this  that  we  realize  how  greatly 
the  knowledge  of  what  is  fine  and  beautiful  in  decorative  carving  in 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


209 


wood  is  due  to  the  opportunity  for  study  and  training  which  a 
country  like  Italy,  so  rich  in  the  best  examples  of  this  art  and  of  art 
in  general,  can  afford.  The  study  of  the  wonderful  carvings  at 
Perugia  or  of  similar  works  of  the  highest  excellence  inspires  the 
artisan  to  attempt  to  imitate  them.  Even  if  he  fails  he  has  exercised 
certain  art  impulses  in  the  right  direction;  and  this  process  acting 
through  the  individual  on  the  masses,  has  occasioned  that  modern 
Renaissance  that,  awakening  to  the  glory  of  mediaeval  art,  is  now 
manifesting  itself  throughout  'Italy  in  two  ways — the  one  in  the 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  7876."] 


GOLD    EARRINGS. 

By  Geralciini,  oj  Rome. 


[The  Main  Building 


astonishingly  clever  imitations  of  tricento,  quattricento  and  especially 
cinquecento  work,  which  is  calculated  to  deceive  even  the  shrewdest 
connoisseurs  by  the  likeness  to  the  original ;  and  the  other  in  an 
endeavor  to  do  true,  honest  work,  using  the  old  masters  simply  as 
instructors  who  shall  guide  the  student  and  encourage  him  to  develop 
his  own  ideas,  and  not  become  a  servile  imitator. 

The  immense  influx  into  Italy  of  wealthy  amateurs  and  igno- 
ramuses, the  one  anxious  to  get  good  specimens  of  good  mediaeval 
work,  and  therefore  willing  to  pay  liberally,  the  other  determined  to 
have  something  "  antique,"  because  it  seems  to  be  the  correct  thing 
to  have,  and  as  a  consequence  ready  to  pay  exorbitant  prices,  has 


210 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


given  a  truly  astonishing  impulse  to  the  trade  of  the  dealer  and  the 
trade  of  the  imitator.  Rich  as  Italy  undoubtedly  was  in  art-treasures 
in  those  glorious  days  when  art  was  still  religion  and  religion  found 
expression  in  art,  if  but  half  the  stuff  annually  carried  off  from  her 
cities  since  then  were  genuine,  she  would  long  ago  have  been  stripped 


of  her  glories ; 
instead  of 
which  she  is  to- 
day a  seeming- 
ly inexhausti- 
ble mine,  grow- 
ingricher  rather 
than  poorer  to 
the  intelligent 
searcher  after 
art-treasures. 

Weapons  of 
defence  and  of- 
fence are,  and 
must  have  been 
among  the  very 
earliest  things 
made;  nor  is  it 
necessary  to 
attribute  this 
fact — as  some 
have — to  the 
evil  passions  of 

facture :  ornament  of  some  kind  seems  to  have  been  coeval  with 
protection ;  and  the  celt  and  hammer  head  of  even  the  Stone  Age 
often  assume  graceful  outlines  not  essential  to  the  practical  purpose 
for  which  the  weapon  was  made. 

Leaving  these  mysterious  ages  and  passing  over,  it  may  be, 
thousands  of  years,  historic  records  prove  the  care  and  labor  spent 
upon  the  de'coration  of  arms  and  armor  from  the  first  periods  of  the 


CROSS. 

By  Salvo  &•  Sons,  of  Genoa. 


humanity.  To 
obtain  food 
from  slain  ani- 
mals of  the  field 
and  forest  and 
to  defend  him- 
self from  the  at- 
tacks of  fero- 
cious animals 
were  the  first 
necessities  of 
primeval  man. 
Hence,  in  al- 
most  every 
deposit  where 
pre-historic  re- 
in a  i  n  s  are 
buried  we  find 
clubs,  hatchets, 
arrows  or  the 
like.  Nor  are 
these  always 
rude  in  manu- 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


211 


Egyptian,  Assyrian  and  Greek  peoples.  The  painted  tombs  at 
Thebes  and  the  sculptured  walls  of  the  palaces  at  Nineveh  have 
supplied  us  with  many  examples  of  armor  and  weapons,  reaching 
back  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  Egyptian  dynasty,  before  the  exodus  of  the 
Israelites.  Classical  Greek  authors,  and  especially  the  poets,  from 
the  days  of  Hesiod  and  Homer,  are  full  of  notices  and  allusions. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


NECKLACE. 

By  BeUezza,  of  Rome. 


[The  Main  Building. 


The  golden  armor  of  Glaucus,  the  shield  of  Agamemnon  and  the 
wondrous  armor  of  Achilles,  although  perhaps  poetically  to  some 
degree  imagined,  must  have  been  described  from  real  types  and 
examples  which  Homer  had  himself  seen.  Nor  are  we  left,  scarcely 
a  century  or  two  later,  merely  to  poetical  descriptions  from  which 
we  may  learn  what  ancient  armor  and  the  ornaments  of  it  were. 
Besides  the  information  which  we  derive  from  vases  and  bas-reliefs, 
various  fragments  have  been  found  in  Greek  and  Etruscan  tombs 


212 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


clearly  showing  the  artistic  and  beautiful  decoration  which  was 
bestowed  on  armor.  Once,  when  a  tomb  in  Etruria  was  opened,  the 
iburied  chieftain  was  seen  clothed  in  full  armor  and  resting  on  a  couch 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


JEWELRY. 

By  Bellezza,  of  Rome. 


{The  Main  Building. 


of  bronze,  and,  although  the  skeleton  quickly  mouldered  into  dust 
and  much  of  the  iron  perished  also  on  exposure  to  the  air,  enough 
was  left,  and  especially  of  the  rich  gold  ornaments,  to  enable  us  to 
form  a  complete  idea  of  the  living  warrior.  Two  small  portions  of 
the  shoulder-pieces  of  a  bronze  Greek  breastplate  are  in  the  British 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


213 


Museum ;  and 
it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible to  conceive 
any  art  or  work- 
manship more 
admirable  than 
that  which  first 
designed  and 
then  executed 
the  figureswhich 
decorate  these 
pieces  in  high 
relief. 

The  full 
suit  of  armor, 
entirely  of  plate 
iron,  was  not 
known  until 
about  the  year 
ijoo.  It  was 
first  worn  in 
Italy  and  with  its 
introduction 
came  the  op- 
portunity also 
of  much  deco- 
ration. At  first 
this  consisted 
chiefly  of  flut- 
ings,  hammered 
out,  with  the  ad- 
dition  some- 
times of  other 
ornaments. 

But,     before 


the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII, 
far  greater  labor 
and  much 
higher  artistic 
decoration  were 
applied  to  ar- 
mor. The  hel- 
met and  every 
other  part  were 
covered  with 
embossed  fig- 
ures or  ara- 
besques, en- 
graved, chased 
and  d  amas  - 
cened  with  gold 
and  silver ;  the 
shields  and 
sword  hilts  es- 
pecially were 
often  carved 
with  very  com- 
plicated subjects 
in  bas-relief. 
The  richest  ar- 
mor was  exe- 
cuted in  Italy, 
but  there  were 
also  artists  of 
renown  in  Ger- 
many, particu- 
larly at  Augs- 
burg,  and  in 
France. 


214  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,   1876. 

The  engravings  we  present  on  pages  217  and  219  are  from  the 
Italian  exhibit  and  are  electros  of  the  shield  of  Henry  IV,  and  of  a 
Cellini  helmet.  Italy  also  has  a  fine  exhibit  of  majolica-ware,  and 
copies  in  terra  cotta  of  well-known  subjects  sculptured  in  marble, 
but  we  must  cross  the  main  avenue  and  do  but  scant  justice  to  China 
and  Japan,  contenting  ourselves  by  illustrating,  on  pages  220  and  221, 
a  couple  of  bronze  vases  and  a  celadon  vase  from  Japan. 

Some  of  the  Oriental  bronzes,  especially  the  Chinese  or  Japanese, 
are  admirably  characteristic  in  design  and  perfect  in  execution.  The 
finest  Japanese  are  especially  distinguished  by  extreme  lightness. 
Some  of  them,  being  lifted,  cause  even  a  singular  illusion;  in  first 
taking  them  into  the  hand  one  is  prepared  to  raise  a  piece  of  metal, 
and  it  is  found  to  be  almost  as  light  as  glass.  In  their  bronzes,  the 
Japanese  have  proved  themselves  to  be,  as  in  some  other  manu- 
factures, most  intelligent  and  expert  artists.  Nearly  all  their  best 
works  are  modeled  carefully  first  in  wax  and  treated  in  so  masterly  a 
manner,  so  daintily  also  and  minutely  finished  with  the  tool,  that 
objects  comparatively  common — such  as  baskets  and  small  stands — 
are  marvels  of  truthful  reproduction. 

The  period  of  the  first  manufacture  of  porcelain  in  China  is 
involved  in  complete  obscurity ;  we  must  be  content  to  allow  it 
a  very  great  antiquity  and  admit  that  excellence  was  long  ago  arrived 
at.  The  official  annals  of  the  Chinese  places  the  invention  some  two 
hundred  years  at  least  before  the  Christian  era. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the  various  kinds  of 
Chinese  porcelain,  a  task  of  extreme  difficulty.  The  dragon,  with 
five,  four  or  three  claw's,  is  a  favorite  subject  of  decoration ;  also,  the 
kylin,  the  dog,  the  spotted  deer  and  sacred  birds.  The  most  beautiful 
color  is  the  turquoise  blue.  Yellow  is  the  imperial  color,  and  a  fine 
ruby  is  generally  found  on  the  highest  quality  of  egg-shell  plates. 
The  old  sea-green — the  true  celadon — is  greatly  valued.  The  crackle 
vases,  when  good  and  old,  are  always  sought  after;  and  though  the 
cause  of  the  crackles  is  shown  to  be  the  unequal  expansion  of  the 
glaze  on  the  paste,  we  do  not  exactly  know  how  they  were 
produced. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


215 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  rSj6. "| 


CABINET. 

By  C.ijani,  of  Florence. 


[The  Main  Building, 


216  THE   GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  Chinese  make  some  wonderful  porcelain,  to  which  they  give 
innumerable  forms  and  every  gradation  of  color.  The  decorative 
taste  and  skill  of  the  artists  of  "the  Celestial  Empire"  know  no 
limits.  Their  chief  aim  is  to  imitate,  with  more  or  less  capricious 
variation,  some  natural  object.  They  study  flowers  and  fruits,  beasts 
and  birds,  tree-trunks  and  empty  shells,  and  refresh  the  countless 
xsubtleties  of  their  fanciful  imaginations  with  the  realities  of  existence. 
It  is  true  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  the  monstrous  and  the  dis- 
torted which  offends  our  educated  eye  and  better  judgment;  yet, 
some  may  still  argue  that  their  grotesque  dragons  'and  reptiles,  their 
fish  and  gigantic  birds,  are  but  traditional  representations  of  animals 
which,  according  not  only  to  eastern  story  but  to  the  facts  made 
known  by  modern  science,  once  trod  and  crawled  upon  the  earth  or 
swam  across  the  seas. 

Japanese  porcelain  bears  a  resemblance  to  that  of  China,  but  with 
a  little  experience  can  be  easily  distinguished.  It  is  a  more  brilliant 
white  and  the  clay  is  of  a  better  quality ;  the  designs  are  more 
simple  and  the  decorations  less  overloaded ;  the  animals  are  not  so 
monstrous  and  the  flowers  more  in  accordance  with  nature.  Japanese 
porcelain  does  not  stand  the  heat  of  the  fire  so  well  as  the  Chinese. 

The  oldest  kind  of  Japanese  ware  is  of  a  quaint  shape  with 
curious  embossed  figures,  painted  on  a  white  ground  in  red  and  blue, 
the  paste 'not  being  of  a  good  quality.  The  most  perfect  production 
is  the  fine  vitreous  porcelain,  the  paste  of  which  is  prepared  with 
extreme  labor.  It  is  so  white  and  thin  as  to  be  perfectly  translucent ; 
the  glaze  so  equal  and  clear  and  so  colorless  that  one  can  scarcely 
believe  it  to  be  the  work  of  the  potter. 

Except  in  its  pottery  and  silverware,  the  first  chamber  of  the 
Danish  Court  presents  nothing,  whilst  the  second  and  third  chambers 
are  sparsely  filled  with  more  terra  cotta  and  several  specimens  of 
raw  material.  From  the  exhibit  of  the  Widow  Ipsen,  of  Copenhagen, 
we  engrave,  on  page  225,  a  pair  of  vases  which  convince  us  that  art 
has  found  a  home  among  the  snows  of  Denmark ;  and,  on  page  226, 
an  engraving  after  Thorwaldsen's  Ganymede,  a  small  replica  of  which 
is  in  the  Danish  Court.  The  tea-service  in  silver  which  we  engrave 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


217 


on  page  227  is  from  the  exhibit  of  M.  Christisen,  of  Copenhagen, 
who  made  a  large  exhibit  of  solid  silver  and  partly  oxidized  silver- 
work  at  the  French  and  Vienna  Exhibitions,  where  he  obtained  the 
highest  awards  for  his  elegance  of  design  and  beauty  of  manipulation. 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


HELMET. 

Italian  Department. 


[The  Main  Building. 


Next  to  the  Danish  Court  is  that  of  Egypt,  in  which  is  the  finest 
cabinet-work  in  the  whole  Exhibition.  The  maker  and  exhibitor 
Guisseppe  Parvis,  of  Cairo,  is  an  Italian,  long  settled  in  Egypt,  who 
occupies  the  oost  of  furniture  'manufacturer  to  His  Highness  the 
Khedive. 


2i 8  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  2876. 

This  cabinet  engraved  on  page  229  is  composed  of  the  finest 
ebony,  polished  till  it  resembles  jet,  in  which  are  inlaid  masses 
of  ivory  and  rare  pieces  of  mother-of-pearl,  carved  with  all  the 
patient  labor  and  minuteness  for  which  the  East  is  famous,  the 
whole  following  a  design  of  extraordinary  intricacy  and  elaborate- 
ness. The  most  remarkable  feature  of  .this  work  is  its  finish. 
Not  a  joint  is  anywhere  visible;  the  bits  of  ivory  or  mother-of- 
pearl  are  so  nicely  fitted  together  that  they  seem  like  solid  pieces 
of  a  marvelous  bigness.  The  longer  one  looks  at  the  design, 
the  more  intricate  it  seems  to  become.  The  heads  surrounding 
the  grotesque  mask  in  the  central  panel  come  out  with  greater 
distinctness,  and  new  forms  reveal  themselves  in  the  frieze  and 
ornamentation  to  the  panels  on  either  side.  Surely  when  the 
artisans  of  Egypt  can  produce  such  work  as  this,  it  is  too  soon 
to  say  that  the  glory  of  the  East  has  departed. 

This  fine  example  of  the  cabinet-maker's  skill  is  built  of  ebony. 
It  is  inlaid  with  ivory  and  mother-of-pearl,  in  those  highly  effective 
patterns  that  are  at  once  the  admiration  and  the  wonder  of  other 
nations.  Every  detail  has  been  worked  up  and  studied  from  the 
specimens  of  the  best  period  of  Arabic  art.  Nothing  could  be 
more  effective  than  the  result.  There  is  but  little  carving — none 
indeed  in  high  relief — and  yet  an  effect  has  been  produced  more 
than  any  carving.  The  richness  of  the  tracery  in  the  central  panel 
is  particularly  fine,  and  taken  as  a  whole  it  deserves  commendation 
of  the  highest  description.  The  possessor  of  such  a  piece  of  work 
as  this  Cabinet  would  never  tire  of  it,  simply  because  the  harmony 
of  its  parts  would  be  constantly  asserting  themselves,  and,  like  in 
a  good  picture,  new  beauties  would  constantly  be  revealing 
themselves. 

The  form  of  decoration,  consisting  of  fantastic  combinations 
of  flowers,  fruits  and  branches,  or,  indeed,  of  almost  any  intertwinings 
of  graceful  forms  and  lines  in  a  repetition  of  the  same  pattern,  is 
a  characteristic  of  Moorish  architecture  that  has  been  given  a 
distinctive  name — Arabesque.  Ornamentation  of  this  kind,  either 
in  sculpture  or  painting,  has  been  found  wonderfully  effective; 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


219 


out  it  requires  the  exercise  of  the  nicest  discrimination.  The 
perfection  of  its  use  is  to  be  found  in  the  Alhambra,  the  most  per- 
fect specimen  of  the  best  Moorish  architecture  existing  at  the  present 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


SHIELD. 

Italian  Department. 


[The  Main  Building. 


time.  Its  walls  are  particularly  rich  in  arabesques  of  various 
patterns,  some  of  them  of  an  astonishing  intricacy  and  beauty. 
From  Arabia  the  use  of  this  style  of  ornamentation  spread  to  Europe, 
and  thence  over  the  civilized  world.  We  see  examples  of  it  every 


220 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


day  in   the  ordinary  decorations  of  our  walls  and   houses  and   in 
the  ornamentation  of  our   vessels   in  common  use.      Painters  and 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  i8i6."\ 


VASE  IN  BRONZE. 

"Japanese  Department. 


[The  Main  Building. 


sculptors    find    it    of    the   greatest    assistance    in    making    effective 
frameworks  for   their  productions.     Raphael's    famous    Arabesques 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


221 


in  the  Vatican  will  be  recalled  by  many  of  our  readers;  and  the 
use  made  by  Kaulbach,  quite  recently,  of  some  of  these  forms  in 
his  fresco  painting  is  familiar  to  many.  For  a  cabinet-maker  a 


iiiiiiiiiiiimwivlllllllll 

*The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


VASE  IN  BRONZE. 

Japanese  Department. 


[  The  Main  Building. 


knowledge  of  the  best  specimens  of  these  beautifully  artistic  designs 
is  of  great  advantage.  No  better  treatment  of  precious  woods  in 
marqueterie  has  been  found  than  to  follow,  or,  rather,  to  learn 
from,  the  forms  designed  by  the  old  Arabians.  Beautiful  as  is 


222  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  exact  imitations  by  the  Florentines  and  Indians  of  natural 
objects  such  as  birds,  flowers,  etc.,  their  copies,  as  a  rule,  show 
poverty  of  invention;  whereas,  the  Moorish  work,  while  sufficiently 
conventionalized,  shows  a  freedom  from  mannerism  and  richness 
of  fancy  that  can  hardly  be  too  highly  commended. 

It  is  not  possible  to  say  at  what  date  gold  and  silver,  the  two 
precious  metals,  were  first  worked  into  ornaments  or  used  as 
coin  or  other  circulating  medium.  In  the  book  of  Genesis  we 
read  that  Abraham  when  he  went  out  of  Egypt  was  very  rich, 
not  only  in  cattle  but  in  silver  and  gold;  and  golden  earrings 
and  bracelets  are  spoken  of  in  the  twenty-fourth  chapter.  We 
believe  that  no  coined  gold  or  silver  has  been  found  in  Egypt  or 
in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh;  and  as  a  means  of  exchange  it  was 
probably  at  first  used  by  weight. 

But  there  is  ample  evidence  of  the  very  high  antiquity  of  gold 
ornamental  work.  Many  proofs  may  be  seen  in  the  paintings  of 
Egyptian  tombs,  and  (to  name  no  more)  there  was  a  remarkable 
set  of  gold  ornaments  shown  at  the  great  Exhibition  of  1862. 
These  were  found  at  Thebes  in  the  tomb  of  a  queen  who  reigned 
about  1500  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Among  them  was  a 
poinard  with  a  gold  blade  on  which  was  engraved  a  combat  between 
a  lion  and  a  bull :  the  cartouche  contained  the  name  of  Amosis,  son 
of  the  queen,  and  the  first  king  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  There 
were  a  diadem  also,  each  extremity  of  which  has  a  couching 
sphinx;  and  a  square  pectoral  brooch,  set  with  colored  stones; 
a  massive  bracelet,  ornamented  with  a  repousse  figure  upon  a 
ground  of  lapis-lazuli;  and  a  boat  of  massive  gold  upon  four 
wheels  of  bronze,  with  silver  rowers.  Upon  this  last  is  the  name 
of  king  Rameses,  the  father  of  Amosis.  The  most  astonishing  of 
the  relics  was  a  beautiful  gold  chain,  of  woven  pattern  and 
admirable  workmanship,  three  feet  long. 

That  the  birth-land  of  Art  does  justice  to  herself  at  our 
International  Exhibition  is  admitted  on  all  sides,  and  there  would 
be  no  difficulty  whatever  in  filling  several  large  volumes  with 
illustrations  from  the  Egyptian,  Japanese  and  Chinese  courts;  but 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


223 


•The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}  VASE   IN    PORCELAIN.  [  The  Main  Bu 

Japanese  Department. 


224  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  iS-j6. 


as  this  is  not  the  place  to  ride  a  hobby  we  shall  direct  attention  to 
the  specimens  of  modern  Egyptian  gold  work,  engraved  on  pages 
231,  232  and  233,  and  ask  the  reader  to  notice  the  equally  high 
artistic  design  of  the  punch-bowl  which  we  engrave  on  page  238 
from  the  exhibit  of  Sasikoff  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow. 
The  set  is  remarkable,  being  gilt  and  inlaid  in  enamel,  with  red 
and  black  ornaments.  Mr.  Sasikoff  is  goldsmith  to  the  Imperial 
Court  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  it  is  pleasing  to  observe  that  he  has 
been  stimulated  to  such  superb  results.  But  before  entering 
Russia  we  have  passed  through  the  Spanish  Court,  where  there  is  a 
liberal  exhibit  of  the  textile  fabrics  of  Spain;  its  wines,  woods 
and  minerals.  From  the  exhibit  of  F.  Zuloaga  &  Son,  of  Madrid, 
we  engrave  on  page  235,  a  plaque  of  iron;  the  same  firm  also 
exhibits  a  beautiful  collection  of  damascened  iron.  Damascening 
is  a  very  beautiful  mode  of  decorating  iron  or  steel;  by  this  term 
is  generally  understood  the  art  of  cutting  out  thin  plates  of  metal 
and  fixing  them  upon  another  metal  of  different  color  and  usually 
of  an  inferior  quality,  either  by  pressure  or  by  grooves  previously 
incised  upon  the  surface  to  receive  them.  Damascening  is  partly 
mosaic  work,  partly  engraving,  and  partly  carving.  In  the  first, 
the  pieces  are  inlaid;  in  the  second,  the  metal  is  indented  or 
cut  in  intaglio;  in  the  last,  gold  and  silver  are  wrought  into  it 
in  relief. 

Usually,  the  process  of  damascening  differs  according  to  the 
hardness  of  the  metal.  When  iron  is  used,  the  whole  surface  is 
covered  with  fine  incisions,  upon  which  the  design  is  inlaid  by 
means  of  gold  or  silver  wires;  these  are  fastened  by  strong  pressure 
or  beaten  in  with  a  hammer.  The  piece  is  then  polished  with  a 
burnisher,  which  not  only  fixes  the  gold  or  silver  more  firmly,  but 
obliterates  the  incisions  and  restores  the  original  polish.  When 
finished,  the  damascening  resembles  a  flat  embroidery. 

This  art  of  damascening  attained  its  highest  perfection  in 
Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century:  Venice  and  especially  Milan 
were  famous  for  it.  Not  only  armor  and  weapons,  but  caskets, 
tables,  and  cabinets  were  damascened  with  ornaments  and  arabesques 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  225 

of  the  most  exquisite  devices.  One  of  the  most  admirable 
specimens  known  to  us  of  this  period  is  a  shield,  attributed  to 
Benvenuto  Cellini. 

Turkey  must  have  borrowed  its  art  of  pottery  from  the  Assyrians 
or  Babylonians,  and  not  have  awakened  to  what  was  being  done  in 
her  neighbors'  workshops ;  for,  looking  at  her  exhibits  of  ordinary 
household  ware,  we  fancy  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  the  sun-dried 
clay  vessels  which  fulfilled  the  needs  of  the  Persians  ere  her  art  arose, 
and  shape,  rendered  facile  by  the  introduction  of  the  potter's  wheel — 
who  knows  whence  ? — preceded  ornamentation  ;  but,  judging  from 
Turkey's  exhibit,  in  this  branch  of  industry,  we  are  forced  to  the 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}  TERRA  COTTA  VASES.  [The  Main  Building. 

By  Madame  Ipsen,  of  Denmark. 

conclusion  that  she  has  not  done  herself  justice  in  this  department. 
We  engrave  a  few  specimens  from  its  exhibit  on  page  237. 

Russia  makes  a  small  exhibit  of  pottery,  of  which  we  engrave  a 
few  examples  on  pages  239  and  240. 

No  evidence  or  proof  which  may  be  relied  upon  reveals  to  us  the 
time  when  the  art  of  making  glass  was  discovered,  or  the  nation 
which  first  improved  it.  The  old  story  told  by  Pliny  is  this :  that 
some  Phoenician  merchants  having  disembarked  near  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Helus,  cooked  their  food  upon  the  shore,  and  having  piled 
up  some  lumps  of  natron — vitreous  stone — upon  the  sand,  the  stones 
and  the  sand,  softening  under  the  heat  and  mixing,  became  a  trans- 


226 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


parent  and  glassy  mass.  Chance  probably  did  lead  to  the  original 
production  of  this  material,  and  there  were  various  circumstances 
connected  with  very  early  manufactures,  especially  of  pottery  or  the 
extraction  of  metals  from  their  ores,  which  might  have  caused  it. 
We  must  be  content  to  learn  that  the  art  of  glass-making  is  to  be 
traced  to  a  most  remote  antiquity. 


GANYMEDE,  AFTER  THORWALDSEN 

Danish  Court. 

Egypt  supplies  us — as  in  many  other  branches  of  science  and  art 
—with  the  first  positive  evidences  of  glass-making.  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson  speaks  of  glass  bottles  containing  red  wine  represented 
on  monuments  of  the  fourth  dynasty — more  than  four  thousand 
years  ago— and  in  the  tombs  of  Beni-Hassan,  which  date  from  the 
same  period,  there  are  paintings  which  show  the  process  itself  of 
glass-blowing.  A  glass  bead  has  been  found,  bearing  the  name  of  a 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


227 


queen  who  reigned  nearly  fifteen  hundred  years  before  the  Christian 
era.     Greek   and   Latin  writers   describe   statues   and   obelisks   ten, 


•  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


TEA-SERVICES   IN  SILVER. 

By  M.  Christisen,  Copenhagen. 


[The  Main  Building. 


thirty,  and  even  of  sixty  feet  high  made  of  one,  three  or  four  emeralds ; 
these  were  undoubtedly  green  glass 


228  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

Next  in  date  to  the  earlier  Egyptian  examples  is  a  vase  of  trans- 
parent greenish  glass  found  at  Nineveh.  On  this  is  an  inscription, 
bearing  the  name  of  a  king  who  lived  about  B.  C.  700.  Fragments 
also  of  variously  colored  glass  have  also  been  discovered  there. 
Beads  were,  probably,  among  the  first  products  of  Egyptian  or 
Phoenician  workmen ;  and,  as  in  modern  times,  were  used  for  barter 
not  only  with  the  barbarous  nations  of  the  interior  of  Africa,  but 
with  those  of  Western  Europe. 

The  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians  carried  their  art  into  almost 
every  country  bordering  upon  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  and 
we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  glass  vessels  were  very  anciently  made  in 
Greece,  in  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  in  Etruria  and  in  Sicily. 
The  beautiful  little  vases  which  may  be  seen  in  almost  every  national 
collection,  and  which  have  been  found  in  the  cemeteries  of  Italy  and 
Greece  have,  however,  a  similarity  of  character  which  would  lead  us 
to  suppose  that  they  were  brought  from  a  few  chief  centres  of  the 
manufacture.  These  vases  are  of  different  colors,  generally  blue; 
usually  with  surfaces  ornamented  by  bands  of  white,  yellow  or 
turquoise,  forming  zigzag  lines,  incorporated  with  the  surface  though 
not  penetrating  through  the  entire  thickness.  The  form  of  by  far  the 
greater  number  is  Greek  rather  than  Egyptian  or  any  other  oriental 
type. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  authors  that  glass  was  not  imported 
into  Rome  until  the  time  of  Sylla;  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certain 
that  the  art  of  glass-making  had  made  great  progress  before  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  and  vessels  of  all  kinds,  whether  for  use  or 
decoration,  were  in  high  estimation.  Glass  has  been  found  in 
windows  at  Pompeii.  The  Romans  knew  how  to  stain  glass,  to 
blow  it,  to  work  it  on  a  lathe  and  to  engrave  it.  Perfect  examples 
of  fine  Roman  glass  are,  as  may  easily  be  understood  from  its  fragile 
nature,  of  extreme  rarity ;  but  the  quantity  once  existing  there  in  the 
first  and  second  centuries  must  have  been  enormous ;  prodigious 
numbers  of  fragments — and  these  of  pieces  rivaling  in  excellence  of 
workmanship  the  most  famous  which  have  been  preserved — are  dug 
up  year  after  year  in  the  city  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


CABINET  IN  EBONY. 

Egyptian  Court. 

I 


\TheMain  Building. 


230  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

A  large  proportion  of  antique  Roman  glass  is  found  to  be 
brightly  iridescent,  displaying  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow  with 
dazzling  intensity ;  red,  orange,  green  and  pink  shining  out  in  pris- 
matic colors,  like  the  inside  of  a  pearl-oyster  shell.  This  iridescence 
is  caused  by  a  decomposition  of  the  outer  surface. 

In  the  Austrian  Court,  at  Messrs.  Lobmeyr's  exhibit — the  best 
exhibit  of  glassware  in  the  Exhibition — there  arrived  just  before  the 
close  of  the  Exhibition  a  few  specimens  of  iridescent  glass ;  the 
method  of  doing  this  has  only  recently  been  rediscovered  by  M. 
Lobmeyr,  It  is  impossible  to  illustrate  this  glass,  and,  except  as 
in  above  paragraph,  it  is  impossible  to  explain  the  peculiarity. 

The  luxurious  court  of  Louis  XIV  was  especially  noted  for  the 
magnificence  of  its  table  appointments ;  and  in  more  recent  times  it 
has  come  to  be  almost  a  test  of  refinement  that  a  lady  shall  secure 
for  the  inmates  and  guests  of  her  house  a  pleasant  hour  over  the 
principal  meal  of  the  day,  when  the  cares  of  the  morning  shall  be 
laid  aside,  and  all  the  surroundings  shall  add  to  the  gratification  of 
the  palate.  No  single  element  is  so  necessary  to  this  result  as  a 
pleasant  light.  The  brilliancy  of  gas,  desirable  in  some  ways  as  it  is, 
has  great  drawbacks.  Its  light  is  glaring  and  harsh,  and  when 
thrown  into  the  eyes  of  the  diner  is  extremely  disagreeable.  So  too 
is  the  heat  which,  as  the  meal  goes  on,  a  large  chandelier  begins  to 
radiate.  Then,  too,  the  position  of  the  light,  directly  above  the 
heads  of  the  guests,  is  very  amendable.  To  meet  these  objections, 
we  may  suppose,  M.  Lobmeyr  has  designed  the  Candelabra-Epergne •, 
which  is  given  on  page  245.  A  glance  will  show  how  many  requi- 
sites are  united  in  this  admirable  Epergne.  It  stands  upon  the 
centre  of  the  table,  holding  a  dozen  wax  or  spermaceti  candles, 
whose  soft  light  is  equally  shed  on  every  side.  The  top  is  a  bowl 
for  flowers,  while  the  larger  dishes  below  may  be  used  either  for 
flowers  or  fruit,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  hostess.  The  shape  of 
the  Epergne  is  such  that  it  does  not  interrupt  the  vision — a  capital 
point  for  it  is  frequently  disagreeable  to  be  shut  off  from  your 
vis-a-vis.  The  candelabra  are  simple  and  strong-looking,  not  liable 
to  break.  The  ornamentation  is  quiet  and  effective.  If  we  add 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


231 


to  the  Epergne 
a  pair  of  gas- 
burners  fastened 
against  the  side 
of  the  wall,  at 
such  a  height  as 
not  to  be  offen- 
sive to  the  eyes 
of  the  guests 
at  table,  we  shall 
have  the  perfec- 
tion of  light  in 
our  dining-room. 

The  further 
selection  which 
we  make  to  en- 
grave from  this 
noble  exhibit  are 
on  pages  244  and 
245. 

Our  good 
grandmothers 
and,  in  some  in- 
stances,  our 
mothers,  washed 
the  cups  and  sau- 
cers themselves 
after  the  evening 
meal,  and  the 
guests  sat  by  and 
chatted  while  the 
sweet  house- 
wifely  action  was 
going  on.  But 
now,  because  ser- 


vants are  care- 
less, we  are  told 
that  we  must  be 
content  to  look 
at  the  odd  and 
pretty  bits  of 
china  that  we 
may  possess  as 
curiosities  too 
precious  to  be 
used,  and  take 
our  meals  off 
sets  any  piece  of 
which  can  be  re- 
pl  aced  if  by 
any  chance  it  gets 
broken. 

All  this 
should  be 
changed.  With 
a  little  care  and 
trouble  the 
din  n  er-tab  le 
could  be  made 
artistically  beau- 
tiful. For  exam- 
ple, with  one  of 
these  beautiful 
dishes  of  Lob- 
meyr's  rn^de  to 
answer  some 
trifling  purpose 
at  dessert,  a  re- 
fining and  artistic 
tone  would  be 


232 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


given  to  all  that  portion  of  the  meal.  One  of  the  pieces  on  page 
244  is  a  crater  vase  with  handles,  and  is  probably  intended  merely 
for  ornament.  But  all  the  other  pieces  are  suitable  for  table  fur- 
niture, either  as  card-receivers  or  as  receptacles  for  dainty  and  choice 


"The  Great Exh ibition ,  1876. ' '] 


NECKLACE  AND   EARRINGS. 

Egyptian  Government. 


[The  Main  Building. 


confections  at  dessert.  And  in  this  connection  we  may  say  that  we 
trust  the  time  is  rapidly  approaching  when  people  generally  will 
open  their  eyes  to  the  fact  that  it  is  within  the  power  of  every 
one  to  make  the  dinner-table  something  more  than  a  board  from 
which  to  feed, — to  beautify  it  so  that  it  may  be  aesthetically 
attractive. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


233 


The  sooner  the  absurd  custom  of  putting  down  upon  the  table 
only  certain  dishes  of  a  conventional  shape  containing  certain  meats, 
and  removing  them  as  soon  as  they  have  done  their  purpose — 


the  sooner  this 
absurd  custom 
is  done  away 
with  the  better. 

There  is  not 
a  household  so 
poor  that  has 
not  some  orna- 
mental dish  or 
vase  in  china  or 
glass  that  would 
answer  a  far 
hi  gher  and 
better  purpose 
if  used  to  grace 
the  board  at 
meals  than  if 
left  upon  a  man- 
tel-shelf or  be- 
hind'a  glass 
simply  to  be 
looked  at. 

Tapestry  is 
neither  real 


si 


manner  unites 
in  its  working 
those  two  pro 
ces  s  es  i  ntc> 
one.  Though 
wrought  in  a 
loom  and  upon 
a  warp  stretched 
out  along  its 
frame,  it  has  no 
woof  thrown 
across  those 
threads  with  a 
shuttle  or  any 
like  appliance, 
but  its  weft  is 
done  with  many 
short  threads, 
a  1 1  variously 
colored  and  put 
in  by  a  needle. 
It  is  not  em- 
broidery though 
so  very  like  it, 
for  tapestry  is 
not  worked 
upon  what  is 


w  e  av  i  n  g  nor 
true  embroi- 
dery, but  in  a 

really  a  web,  having  both  warp  and  woof,  but  upon  a  series  of  closely 
set  fine  strings. 

From  the  way  in  which  tapestry  is  spoken  of  in  Holy  Writ  we 
may  be  sure  that  the  art  is  very  old ;  and  if  it  did  not  take  its  first 
rise  in  Egypt,  we  are  led  by  the  same  authority  to  conclude  that  it 


234  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

soon  became  successfully  cultivated  by  the  people  of  that  land.  The 
woman  in  the  book  of  Proverbs  says  :  "  I  have  woven  my  bed  with 
cords.  I  have  covered  it  with  painted  tapestry,  brought  from  Egypt." 
We  find,  therefore,  not  only  that  it  was  employed  as  an  article  of 
household  furniture  among  the  Israelites,  but  that  the  Egyptians 
were  the  makers. 

From  Egypt,  through  western  Asia,  the  art  of  tapestry-making 
found  its  way  to  Europe,  and  after  many  ages  at  last  to  England. 
Among  the  other  manual  labors  followed  in  religious  houses  this 
handicraft  was  one;  and  monks  became  some  of  the  best  work- 
men. The  altars  and  the  walls  of  their  churches  were  hung  with 
tapestry.  Matthew  Paris  tells  us  that  among  other  ornaments  which, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  I,  abbot  Geoffrey  had  made  for  his  church  of 
St.  Alban's  were  three  reredoses ;  the  first  a  large  one  wrought  with 
the  finding  of  the  body  of  St.  Alban ;  the  other  two  figured  with  the 
parables  of  the  man  who  fell  among  thieves  and  of  the  prodigal  son. 
While  in  London,  in  the  year  1316,  Simon,  abbot  of  Ramsey  bought 
looms,  staves,  shuttles  and  a  slay:  "pro  weblomes  emptis  xxs.  Et 
pro  staves  ad  easdem  vjd.  Item  pro  iiij  shittles  pro  eodem  opere 
ij8  vjd.  Item  in  j.  slay  pro  textoribus  viijd."  Collier,  in  his  history, 
quotes  a  letter  from  Giffard,  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  smaller  houses,  written  to  Cromwell,  in  which  he 
says,  speaking  of  the  monastery  of  Wolstrope,  in  Lincolnshire : 
"  Not  one  religious  person  there  but  that  he  can  and  doth  use  either 
imbrothering,  writing  books  with  very  fait  hand,  making  their  own 
garments,  carving,  painting,  or  graving,  etc." 

We  may  collect  from  Chaucer  that  working  tapestry  was  not  an 
uncommon  trade ;  among  his  pilgrims  he  mentions  in  the  prologue, 

An  haberdasher  and  a  carpenter, 
A  webbe,  a  dyer,  and  a  tapisser. 

Pieces  of  English-made  tapestry  still  remain.  A  fine  though 
greatly  damaged  specimen  is  at  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Coventry,  repre- 
senting the  marriage  of  Henry  VI. 

The  art  of  weaving  tapestry  was  successfully  followed  in  many 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


235 


parts  of  France  and  throughout  ancient  Flanders,  where  secular 
trade-guilds  were  formed  for  its  especial  manufacture  in  many  of  the 
towns.  Several  of  these  places  won  for  themselves  an  especial  fame ; 
but  so  far,  at  last,  did  Arras  outrun  them  all  that  arras-work  came  to 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


PLAQUE    OF    IRON. 

By  Zuolaga,  of  Madrid. 


[The  Main  Building. 


be  the  common  word,  throughout  Europe,  to  mean  all  sorts  of 
tapestry.  Thus  the  fine  hangings  for  the  choir  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral — now  at  Aix-en-Provence — though  probably  made  at 
home  by  his  own  monks  and  given  to  that  church  by  prior  Goldston 
in  1595,  are  spoken  of  as  arras- wo rk  :  "de  arysse  subtiliter  intextos.' 
Arras  is  but  one  among  other  terms  by  which,  during  the  middle 


236  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

ages,  tapestry  was  called.  Its  earliest  name  was  Saracenic  work — 
"opus  Saracenicum" — and,  at  first,  tapestry  was  wrought  as  in  the 
east,  in  a  low  or  horizontal  loom.  The  artisans  of  France  and 
Flanders  were  the  first  to  introduce  the  upright  or  vertical  frame, 
afterwards  known  abroad  as  "  de  haute  lisse,"  in  contradistinction  to 
the  low  or  horizontal  frame  called  "  de  basse  lisse."  Workmen  who 
kept  to  the  unimproved  loom  were  known,  in  the  trade,  as  Saracens, 
for  retaining  the  method  of  their  Paynim  teachers ;  and  their  work, 
Saracenic.  In  the  year  1339,  John  de  Croisettes,  a  Saracen-tapestry 
worker  living  at  Arras,  sells  to  the  Duke  of  Touraine  a  piece  of  gold 
Saracenic  tapestry  figured  with  the  story  of  Charlemagne :  "  Jean  de 
Croisettes,  tapissier  Sarrazinois  demeurant  a  Arras,  vend  au  due  de 
Touraine  un  tapis  sarrazinois  a  or  de  1'histoire  de  Charlemaine." 
The  high  frame,  however,  soon  superseded  the  low  one ;  and  among 
the  pieces  of  tapestry  belonging  to  Philippe,  Duke  of  Bourgogne 
and  Brabant,  many  are  especially  entered  as  of  the  high  frame,  one 
of  which  is  thus  described :  "  ung  grant  tapiz  de  haulte  lice, 
sauz  or,  de  1'istoire  du  due  Guillaume  de  Normandie  comment 
il  conquist  Engleterre."  A  very  fine  example  is  still  to  be  seen 
in.  the  collection  at  the  Louvre,  representing  the  history  of  St. 
Martin. 

With  the  upright,  as  with  the  flat  frame,  the  workman  had  to  grope 
in  the  dark  a  great  deal  upon  his  path.  In  both,  he  was  obliged 
to  put  in  the  threads  on  the  back  or  wrong  side  of  the  piece,  follow- 
ing his  sketch  as  best  he  could  behind  the  strings  or  warp.  As  the 
face  was  downward  in  the  flat  frame,  it  was  much  less  easy  to  observe 
and  correct  a  fault.  In  the  upright  frame  he  might  go  in  front  and 
with  his  own  work  in  open  view,  on  one  hand,  and  the  original 
design  full  before  him,  on  the  other,  he  could  mend  as  he  went  on, 
step  by  step,  the  smallest  mistake,  were  it  but  a  single  thread.  Put 
side  by  side,  when  finished,  the  pieces  from  the  upright  frame  were 
in  beauty  and  perfection  far  beyond  those  from  the  flat  one.  We  can 
scarcely  particularize  the  details  in  which  that  superiority  consisted, 
for  not  one  single  flat  sample  is  to  be  identified  as  certain  from  evi- 
dence within  our  reach. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  237 

When  the  illuminators  of  manuscripts  began  to  put  in  golden 
shadings  all  over  their  painting  the  tapestry-workers  did  the  same. 
Such  a  manner  cannot  be  relied  on  as  a  criterion  whereby  to  judge 
of  the  exact  place  where  any  specimen  of  tapestry  had  been  wrought, 
or  to  tell  its  precise  age.  To  work  figures  on  a  golden  ground  and 
to  shade  garments,  buildings  and  landscapes  with  gold,  are  two 
different  things.  Upon  several  pieces  at  South  Kensington,  gold 


"The  Great  Exhi6itiont  1876." \  TURKISH    CROCKERY.  {The  Main  Building. 

thread  has  been  very  plentifully  used,  but  the  metal  is  of  so  debased 
a  quality  that  it  has  become  almost  black. 

The  use  of  tapestry  for  church  decoration  and  household  furniture 
in  Europe  was  for  a  long  period  very  great.  Many  large  pieces, 
mostly  of  a  scriptural  character,  were  provided  by  Cardinal  Wolsey 
for  his  palace  at  Hampton  Court.  In  the  next  generation,  a  very  famous 
set  was  made  in  Flanders,  which  for  many  years  decorated  the  walls 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  London ;  it  represented  the  defeat  of  the 
Spanish  Armada.  This  magnificent  memorial  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1834.  One  fragment  only  is  known  to  exist.  This  piece  was  cut 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876, 


out  to  make  way  for  a  gallery  at  the  time  of  the  trial  of  Queen 
Caroline,  and  was  secreted  by  a  German  servant  of  the  Lord 
Chamberlain.  The  relic  was  bought  some  years  after  for  £20  and 
presented  to  the  corporation  of  Plymouth,  who  still  possess  it. 

The  most  beautiful  series  now  in  the  world  is  in  the  Vatican  at 
Rome,  and  may  be  judged  of  by  looking  at  a  few  of  the  original 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


PUNCH-BOWL. 

Russian  Court. 


[The  Main  Building. 


cartoons  at  present  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Duke 
Cosimo  tried  to  set  up  tapestry-work  at  Florence,  but  did  not 
succeed.  Later,  Rome  produced  some  good  things ;  among  others, 
the  fine  copy  of  Da  Vinci's  Last  Supper,  still  hung  up  on  Maunday 
Thursday.  England  made  several  attempts  to  re-introduce  the 
manufacture :  first  at  Mortlake,  then  afterwards  in  London,  at  Soho. 
Works  from  these  two  establishments  may  be  met  with.  At  North- 
umberland House  there  was  a  room  hung  with  large  pieces  of 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  239 

tapestry  wrought  at  Soho,  and  for  that  mansion,  in  the  year  1758. 
The  designs  were  by  Francesco  Zuccherelli,  and  consisted  of  land- 
scapes composed  of  hills  crowned  here  and  there  with  the  standing 
ruins  of  temples  or  strewed  with  broken  columns,  among  which 
groups  of  country  folks  are  wandering  and  amusing  themselves. 
Mortlake  and  Soho  were  failures.  Not  so  the  Gobelins  at  Paris,  as 
every  one  well  knows. 

n  many  English  houses,  especially  in  the  country,  good  samples 
of  late  Flemish  tapestry  may  be  found.  Close  to  London,  Holland 
House  is  adorned  with  some  curious  specimens,  particularly  in  the 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  7876."]  RUSSIAN    POTTERY.  IThe  Main  Building. 

Rttssian  Court, 

raised  style.  An  earlier  example  of  the  fifteenth  century,  repre- 
senting the  marriage  of  Louis  XII  and  Anne  of  Brittany,  is  in  a 
foreign  collection. 

Imitated  tapestry  existed  long  ago  under  the  name  of  "stayned 
cloth,"  and  the  workers  of  it  were  embodied  int9  a  London  guild. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Exeter  Cathedral  had 
several  pieces  of  old  painted  or  "stayned"  cloth:  "i  front  stayned 
cum  crucifixo,  Maria  et  Johanne,  Petro  et  Paulo;  viij  panni  linei 
stayned,  etc."  The  great  use  at  that  time  of  such  articles  in  house- 
hold furniture  maybe  witnessed  in  the  will — 1503 — of  Katherine, 
Lady  Hastings,  who  bequeaths,  besides  several  other  such  pieces, 
"an  old  hangin  of  counterfeit  arres  of  Knollys,  which  now  hangeth 


24O 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


in  the  hall  and  all  such  hangyings  of  old  bawdekyn,  or  lynen  paynted 
as  now  hang  in  the  chappell."  We  may  also  remember  that  Falstaff 
speaks  of  it  as  an  illustration  easily  understood;  he  says  that  his 
troops  are  "as  ragged  as  Lazarus  in  the  painted  cloth." 

Carpets  are  akin  to  tapestry,  and  though  the  use  of  them  may 
perhaps  be  not  so  ancient,  yet  is  very  old.  Here,  again,  we  must 
look  to  the  people  of  Asia  for  the  finest  as  well  as  the  earliest 
examples  of  this  textile.  Medieval  specimens  are  rare  anywhere, 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


RUSSIAN  POTTERY. 

Russian  Court, 


|  The  Main  Building. 


and  we  are  glad  to  remember  two  pieces  of  that  period  fortu- 
nately in  the  collection  at  South  Kensington — No.  8649 — of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  No.  8357,  of  the  sixteenth,  both  of  Spanish 
make. 

The  chambers  of  royal  palaces  and  the  chancels  of  parish  churches 
used  to  be  strewed  with  rushes.  When,  however,  they  could  afford 
it,  the  authorities  of  cathedrals,  even  in  very  early  times,  spread  the 
sanctuary  with  carpets;  and  at  last  old  tapestry  came  to  be  so 
employed,  as  now  in  Italy.  Among  such  coverings  for  the  floor 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  241 

before  the  altar,  Exeter  had  a  large  piece  of  Arras  cloth  figured  with 
the  life  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  the  gift  of  one  of  its  bishops, 
Edmund  Lacy,  in  1420;  besides  two  large  carpets,  one  bestowed  by 
Bishop  Nevill  in  1456,  the  other,  of  a  checkered  pattern,  by  Lady 
Elizabeth  Courtney:  " carpet  et  panni  coram  altari  sternendi;  i 
pannus  de  Arys  de  historia  ducis  Burgundie:  i  larga  carpeta,  etc." 
In  an  earlier  inventory  we  find  that  among  the  "bancaria"  or  bench- 
coverings  in  the  choir  of  the  same  cathedral,  one  was  a  large  piece 
of  English-made  tapestry  with  a  fretted  pattern.  From  existing 
testimony,  we  believe  that  such  must  have  been  the  practice  at 
Croyland,  where  Abbot  Egelric — the  second  of  the  name — gave  to 
that  church,  before  the  year  992,  "two  large  foot-cloths — so  carpets 
were  then  called — woven  with  lions  to  be  laid  out  before  the  high 
altar  on  great  festivals,  and  two  shorter  ones  trailed  all  over  with 
flowers,  for  the  feast  days  of  the  apostles."  The  quantity  of  carpeting 
in  palaces  may  be  seen  by  the  way  in  which  Leland  tells  us  that 
" my  lady  the  queen's  rooms"  were  strewed  with  them  "when  she 
took  her  chamber." 

The  use  of  carpets  and  woollen  hangings  is  coeval  with  civilization. 
They  were  among  the  first  furniture  of  man.  The  pastoral  tribes 
of  the  elevated  plains  of  Asia  employed  furs  and  fleeces  to  protect 
them  from  the  chilly  exhalations  of  the  night,  and  from  the  burning 
soil  of  the  desert.  When  the  shuttle  was  invented,  a  woven 
material  was  substituted,  to  which  the  loom  gave  its  pattern  and  the 
dyer  its  varied  colors. 

In  the  time  of  Homer  the  fabrics  of  Babylon,  Tyre  and  Sidon 
were  celebrated,  and  Egypt,  as  well  as  India,  early  learned  to  excel 
in  the  art  of  weaving  woollens.  The  taste  of  the  two  countries 
bears  characters  of  great  resemblance,  and  many  of  the  patterns  of 
ancient  Egypt  differ  little  from  those  of  modern  India.  The  Greeks 
sent  to  Media  for  carpets  to  cover  their  seats,  and  it  is  in  Persia  this 

«v 

industry  was  first .  developed.  Time  has  not  modified  the  manu- 
facture. The  vertical  loom  still  used  by  the  weaver  of  Lahore  and 
Cashmere  is  identical  with  that  employed  perhaps  four  thousand 
years  ago,  and  the  frame  that  produced  the  carpets  celebrated  by 


242 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Homer    and   Virgil,  is   the  same    used   for    those  of   Turkey   and 
Algiers. 

The  people  of  northern   Europe  were   long  without  the  use  of 


carpets — a  cold,  coarse  matting  replaced  the  warm  woollen  material  ; 
yet  it  appears  the  Gauls  early  learned  the  art,  and,  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  the  red  fabrics  of  Arras  had  already  attained  a  certain 
reputation.  Who  would  have  foretold  that  Gaul  and  Britain,  then 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  243 

scarcely  within  the  pale  of  civilization,  should  in  after  ages  be  the 
seat  of  a  flourishing  industry  which  would  rival  the  manufactures  of 
the  East? 

As  early  as  the  tenth  century  there  was  a  manufacture  of  tapestry 
in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Florent,  at  Saumur,  where  the  monks  wove 
hangings  decorated  with  flowers  and  animals ;  and  a  few  years  later 
a  Count  of  Poitiers  offers  Robert,  King  of  France,  for  his  assistance 
in  an  expedition,  a  sum  of  money  and  a  hundred  pieces  of  the 
tapestry  for  which  Poitiers  was  then  celebrated,  the  Italian  prelates 
sending  there  for  its  productions. 

Tradition  also  assigns  the  establishment  of  the  fabric  at  Aubusson 
to  refugees  of  the  great  army  of  Abd-er-Rahman,  routed  by  Charles 
Martel  between  Loudun  and  Tours,  in  732.  The  retreat  of  the  Emir 
of  Spain  was  so  rapid  that  many  were  left  behind  among  the  Gallo- 
Franks  of  Aquitaine.  The  weaving  of  carpets  was  the  principal 
trade  of  these  Saracens,  who  had  invaded  Europe  by  Spain,  as  they 
later  entered  by  the  Bosphorus. 

Up  to  the  eleventh  century  these  woollen  fabrics  of  Europe  were 
made  for  the  hangings  of  churches  and  palaces,  though  probably 
foot-carpets  were  also  used  in  the  royal  habitations  and  to  lay  before 
the  altar.  The  Crusades  introduced,  with  other  eastern  productions, 
the  carpets  of  Damascus,  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  yet  straw  and  rushes 
were  to  a  late  period  still  generally  used  to  spread  over  the 
apartments. 

Italy  made  tapestry  at  Bergamo ;  but  the  introduction  of  paper 
hangings  in  the  fifteenth  century  led  to  the  decline  of  the  manu- 
facture. From  the  thirteenth  century  the  productions  of  Flanders 
were  renowned  above  those  of  all  other  countries.  They  were  made 
at  Oudenarde,  Brussels,  and,  principally  of  all,  at  Arras — not  then  in 
France.  So  famous  became  this  city  that  it  gave  its  name  to  the 
production,  tapestry  being  styled  Arazzo  in  Italian,  and  "arras"  in 
English;  and,  after  the  battle  of  Nicopolis,  in  1396,  the  ransom  paid 
to  Bajazet  for  the  liberation  of  a  son  of  the  Count  of  Flanders  con- 
sisted of  a  sum  of  money  and  a  series  of  Arras  tapestries  repre- 
senting the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Here,  too,  were  executed 


244 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,   1876. 


in  later  times  the  ten  pieces  sent  by  Francis  I  to  Pope  Leo  X,  worked 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1*76."}  SERVICE   OF    GLASSWARE.  {The  Main  B*ildinS. 

Austrian  Court. 

from   the  designs  of  Raffaelle,  the  original  cartoons  for  which  are 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


245 


the  choicest  of  art  treasures.  But  the  tapestries  of  Flanders  have 
died  away;  the  last  piece  was  made  at  Brussels  in  1781.  France  alone 
maintains  the  manufacture. 

Until  the  sixteenth  century  all  the  tapestry  made  in  France  was 
due  to  private  enterprise.     It  was  Francis  I  who  first  made  it  a  state 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.^     EPERGNE  AND    CANDELABRA. 

Austrian  Court. 


,  The  Main  Building. 


manufacture.  He  collected  the  best  workmen  Flanders  and  Italy 
could  produce  and  established  them  at  Fontainebleau.  Primaticcio 
furnished  the  designs.  Henry  II  appointed  Philibert  Delorme 
director  of  the  new  manufacture,  and  set  up  another  at  Paris,  in  the 
Hopital  de  la  Tnnite.  The  civil  and  religious  wars  of  his  sons  were 


246  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,   1876. 

fatal  to  royal  establishments  as  well  as  to  private  industry,  but  Henry 
IV  resumed  the  work  of  Francis  I.  He  established  a  fabric  of 
tapestry  in  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  whence,  after  various  transfers, 
the  workmen  were  placed  on  the  banks  of  the  Bievre,  where  Jean 
Gobelin  the  dyer  had  established  himself  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the 
waters  of  that  river  being  famous  for  the  dyeing  of  scarlet ;  but  Jean 
Gobelin  gre^w  rich,  his  family  became  ennobled. 

With  Louis  XIV  and  Colbert  all  the  royal  manufactures  rose  to 
a  new  existence.  Under  the  name  of  "  Royal  Manufacture  for  the 
Furniture  of  the  Crown,"  were  united  at  the  Gobelins,  goldsmiths, 
engravers,  lapidaries,  furniture  and  tapestry-makers,  dyers,  etc. — all 
the  workmen  of  various  trades  employed  for  the  sovereign.  Lebrun 
was  appointed  director,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Gobelins 
became  a  school  for  all  the  industries  connected  with  furniture: 
Louis  wished  to  set  his  people  the  example  of  model  manufactures — 
not  to  crush  private  industry,  but  to  stimulate  and  give  a  right 
direction  to  its  labors.  The  harmony  that  pervaded  at  that  epoch  in 
every  branch  of  decoration,  shows  the  unity  of  spirit  that  inspired 
them  all.  The  genius  of  Lebrun  was  universal.  His  heroic  pieces 
were  the  subjects  of  the  tapestries ;  even  for  the  locks  and  bolts 
he  furnished  the  models;  from  the  ceiling  to  the  floor  all  was 
designed  under  his  eye.  The  first  artists  lent  their  assistance  in 
carrying  out  his  conceptions.  Van  der  Meulen  painted  pieces  with 
horses  and  battles,  Monnoyer  with  flowers,  and  Boule  executed  the 
furniture  designed  by  Lebrun. 

The  same  activity  reigned  at  the  Savonnerie,  a  royal  manufacture 
of  carpets  founded  at  Chaillot,  in  an  old  soap  manufactory,  whence  it 
derived  its  name.  While  the  Gobelins  covered  the  walls,  the  Savon- 
nerie decorated  the  floors.  Those  of  the  long  gallery  of  the  Louvre 
and  Salle  d'Apollon  were  among  its  products.  The  first  was  begun 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  It  comprised  ninety-two  compartments, 
each  ten  yards  long  by  five  or  six  yards  wide — doubtless  the  largest 
foot-carpet  ever  made.  In  1825,  the  manufacture  of  the  Savonnerie 
was  united  to  that  of  the  Gobelins. 

Two    years   after  the   establishment   of   the    Gobelins,    Colbert 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


247 


opened   a   manufacture  of  tapestry  at    Beauvais,  which   had   Oudry 
and  Boucher  among  its  directors.     It  is  now  united  to  the  Gobelins. 

The  Gobelin  establishment  is  divided  into  three  branches,  one  for 
dyeing,  the  other  two  for  making  tapestry  and  carpets.  The  dyeing 
is  considered  the  first  in  the  world;  the  waters  of  the  Seine  are  sub- 
stituted for  those  of  the  Bievre,  now  degenerated  into  a  dirty  stream. 
The  colors  are  more  lasting,  each  combination  of  color  has  twenty 
different  shades,  the  gradations  being  so  insensible  as  only  to  be  dis- 
tinguished by  a  practised  eye.  They  are  all  classed  by  M.  Chevreul 
in  his  chromatic  scale  which  gives  to  each  shade — in  all  14,420 — its 


'•The  Great  Exhibition.  7876." 


CARPETS. 

German  Court. 


The  Main  Building. 


special  number,  by  which  it  may  be  described.  His  chromatic  circle 
is,  at  the  Gobelins,  formed  of  skeins  of  silk. 

The  Gobelin  tapestry  is  made  on  the  upright  frame — haut  lisse — 
the  artist  is  placed  behind,  his  back  to  the  model. 

In  the  carpet  manufacture,  the  upright  frame  is  also  used,  but  the 
workman  sits  in  front  of  his  work.  The  threads  of  wool  which  form 
the  velvet  pile  are  secured  to  the  cotton  or  hemp  warp  by  a  double 
knot.  This  gives  them  the  greatest  solidity.  Friction  and  wear 
only  add  to  their  durability,  as  they  have  the  effect  of  drawing  closer 
the  knots  which  fasten  the  wool  to  the  warp.  The  wool  is  carefully 
cut  and  shorn,  until  the  pile  reaches  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 


248  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

Savonnerie  carpets  are  perhaps  the  largest  made,  generally  white, 
with  arabesque  borders,  of  surpassing  excellence,  from  the  fine 
quality  of  the  wool,  the  delicacy  of  the  dyes,  the  richness  and  harmony 
of  the  colors  and  the  precision  and  skilfulness  of  their  workmanship. 

In  the  Beauvais  tapestries,  we  especially  admired  a  pink  ecran,  or 
fire-screen,  a  group  of  chairs,  the  ground  of  the  medallions  a  soft 
cream  color,  with  charming  bouquets  of  life-like  anemones  and  tulips. 
In  addition  is  a  hunting  subject.  It  is  impossible  to  realize  the  deli- 
cacy and  finish  of  these  compositions,  whether  as  regards  the  har- 
monious beauty  of  their  coloring,  the  artistic  value  of  their  grouping, 
or  the  delicate  blending  of  the  lights  and  shadows. 

Similar  in  workmanship  to  the  tapestry  of  the  Gobelins  and  the 
carpets  of  the  Savonnerie,  are  the  fabrics  of  Aubusson,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Creuze,  part  of  the  ancient  province  of  La  Marche.  We 
have  already  alluded  to  their  supposed  origin  from  a  colony  of  Sara- 
cens, in  the  eighth  century.  Until  1740,  the  manufacturer  made  only 
the  Gobelin  tapestry,  fine,  when  used  for  the  hangings  of  walls,  and 
coarser,  when  destined  for  the  smooth  carpet,  or  tapiz  raz.  Since 
then,  the  long  woollen  high-piled  carpets  of  the  Savonnerie  have  been 
imitated.  The  productions  of  Aubusson  are  highly  artistic;  the 
finest  wools  of  the  best  dyes  are  employed.  Established  for  so  many 
centuries,  the  special  traditions  of  the  art  and  the  aptitude  for  exe- 
cution, like  those  of  glass-making,  become  hereditary  in  families. 
No  other  place  can  produce  such  a  staff  of  workmen  as  Aubusson, 
and  even  there  it  takes  fifteen  years  to  qualify  for  the  work  the 
apprentice  who  has  been  accustomed,  almost  from  infancy,  to  handle 
his  father's  frame.  Tapestry  is  produced  here  at  a  much  cheaper 
rate  than  in  the  Imperial  fabric.  While  a  work  of  tapestry  will  cost 
at  the  Gobelins  from  $600  to  $750  the  square  metre,  at  Aubusson  it 
rarely  exceeds  $100.  The  great  expense  is  in  the  fabrication;  the 
material  only  enters  for  twenty  per  cent,  in  the  value.  In  a  portiere 
costing  $200,  $160  goes  to  the  workman. 

Germany,  which  owes  the  development  of  her  carpet  industry  to 
French  enterprise  and  design,  shows  great  advancement  over  her 
displays  at  previous  exhibitions;  the  two  specimens  which  we 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


249 


The  Great  Exhibition 


ALBUM  COVER. 


\Tht  Main  Kuitcting. 


25o  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

engrave  on  page  247  are  choice  examples  of  Berlin  and  Elberfeld 
factories.  They  show  elegance  in  design  and  good  blending  of 
colors,  but  were  hung  so  much  out  of  peoples'  way  that  they  failed 
to  attract  much  attention. 

In  the  rear  of  the  Carpets  was  the  collective  exhibit  of  the 
German  publishers,  and  a  little  west  of  this  were  the  Austrian  and 
German  exhibits  of  Albums  and  Bindings.  From  these  exhibits  we 
engrave  an  Album  Cover,  on  page  249,  which  is  symbolical  in  its 
design  of  Art  and  Industry. 

A  few  good  examples  of  German  work  in  silver  were  exhibited  in 
the  court  immediately  adjacent  to  the  main  avenue ;  in  the  same  col- 
lection, a  small  assortment  of  jewelry  was  also  exhibited.  The  dish 
or  plateau  engraved  on  the  next  page,  and  the  casket,  with  its  top, 
on  page  253,  are  from  the  exhibit  of  Mr.  Zimmerman,  of  Hanau, 
and  Erhard  &  Sons.  The  plateau  is  a  fine  and  elaborate  piece  of  work 
of  a  class  too  highly  finished  and  too  costly  for  the  ordinary  uses  to 
which  plates  are  put,  but  it  is  designed  to  serve  a  purely  artistic  end 
by  being  suspended  from  the  wall  or  given  a  place  on  a  mantel  or  in 
a  cabinet. 

This  custom  of  using  artistic  plaques  and  plateaux  for  decorative 
purposes  is  extremely  popular  just  at  the  present  time;  and  as  the 
fashion  is  a  good  one  ano!  founded  upon  thoroughly  artistic  principles, 
it  is  likely  to  continue. 

No  one  who  has  not  tried  the  experiment  himself  or  seen  it  tried 
by  others  can  realize  the  excellent  effect  of  hanging  some  brightly- 
colored  dish  or  plate  such  as  this  upon  the  wall  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  picture.  It  lights  up  a  room  wonderfully,  and  when  several  of 
them  are  so  diposed,  with  pictures  and  engravings  at  irregular  inter- 
vals, the  tout-ensemble  is  capital. 

Messrs.  Erhard  &  Sons'  Casket  is  about  nine  inches  long,  six 
inches  wide  and  six  inches  high.  It  is  ornamented  with  scroll  designs 
in  repousse-work  upon  the  front  and  back,  and  the  two  side  panels 
contain  portrait-medallions  between  branches  of  laurel,  done  in  the 
same  manner.  The  angles  at  the  junction  of  the  sides  are  concealed 
by  curved  projections  terminating  in  scrolls  at  the  feet. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


The  lid  or  cover  to  the  article  is  somewhat  more  elaborately  orna- 
mented by  the  same  repousse  process.  On  the  four  sloping  sides  are 
baskets  of  a  classical  shape  containing  fruit  and  flowers.  On  either 


•The  Great  Exhibition,  7876."] 


SILVER    PLAQUE. 

By  Zimmerman,  of  Hanau. 


|  The  Main  Building. 


side  of  these  are  sprays  of  leaves  woven  together  in  a  simple,  graceful 
pattern.  In  the  upper  panel  is  a  square,  raised  frame,  within  which 
is  an  oval  containing  a  group  of  a  cupid  and  a  nymph,  the  latter 
playing  upon  a  flute.  Beside  the  cupid  is  a  harp,  and  in  the  distance 


THE   GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


are  sheep  and  a  pastoral  landscape.  The  artist  has  taken  rare  pains 
with  this  part  of  his  work,  and  has  produced  a  very  effective  and 
pleasing  bas-relief.  As  no  gilding  or  enameling  is  used  in  decorating 
this  casket,  the  claim  for  attention  which  it  has  is  solely  its  artistic 
workmanship  in  this  particular  branch  of  the  silversmiths'  trade. 
As  repousse-work  is  now  so  fashionable  that  nearly  all  the  large 
manufacturers  of  plate  in  Europe  and  this  country  are  producing  it, 
our  readers  will  be  interested  in  contrasting  the  work  of  the  various 
nations  which  we  illustrate.  In  this  way  those  who  are  directly 
interested  in  the  process  will  gain  valuable  ideas,  and  those  who 
simply  take  an  interest  in  industrial  art  products  generally,  will  be 
able  to  form  an  intelligent  idea  of  whatever  characteristics  are  dis- 
tinctly national. 

The  works  in  silver  which  we  engrave  on  pages  254  and  255  are 
from  the  exhibit  of  Ritter  &  Co. ;  and  the  artistic  gold-work  on 
pages  256  and  257  are  from  the  workshops  of  Messrs.  Gerstle  & 
Hartung. 

The  history  of  pottery  and  its  manufacture  is  a  subject  of  great 
extent;  because  from  a  very  early  period  of  human  existence,  known 
to  us  only  by  the  tangible  memorials  of  primitive  inhabitants,  the 
potter's  art  appears  to  have  been  practised.  At  first  the  vessels  were 
of  coarse  clay,  rude  and  sun-dried  or  ill-baked,  and  occasionally 
ornamented  with  concentric  and  transverse  scratches;  from  which 
state  they  gradually  developed  to  the  exquisite  forms  and  decoration 
of  the  Greek  pottery;  but  it  would  seem  that  however  universal  the 
production  of  vessels  of  baked  clay,  the  art  of  applying  to  them  a 
vitreous  covering  or  glaze  was  an  invention  which  emanated  from  the 
east,  from  India  or  Egypt,  Assyria  or  Babylon. 

On  this  point  Dr.  Birch,  in  the  introduction  to  his  erudite  work 
on  ancient  pottery,  says :  "  The  desire  of  rendering  terra  cotta  less 
porous  and  of  producing  vessels  capable  of  retaining  liquids,  gave 
rise  to  the  covering  of  it  with  a  vitreous  enamel  or  glaze.  The 
invention  of  glass  has  hitherto  been  generally  attributed  to  the 
Phoenicians ;  but  opaque  glasses  or  enamels  as  old  as  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  and  enameled  objects  as  early  as  the  fourth,  have  been  found 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


253 


in  Egypt.     The  employment  of  copper  to  produce  a  brilliant  blue- 
colored  enamel  was  very  early,  both  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria;   but 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."^ 


CASKET. 

By  Erhard  fl  Sons. 


[The  Main  Building. 


the   use  of  tin   for   a  white   enamel,  as    recently  discovered   in   the 
enameled  bricks  and  vases  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  anticipated,  by 


254 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


many  centuries,  the  re-discovery  of  that  process  in   Europe    in  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  shows  the  early  application  of  metallic  oxides. 


This  invention 
apparently  re- 
mai  ned  f  o  r 
many  centuries 
a  secret  among 
the  eastern 
nations  only, 
enameled  terra 
cotta  and  glass 
forming  articles 
of  commercial 
export  from 
E  gypt  and 
P  h  ce  n  i  c  i  a  to 
every  part  of 
the  Mediterra- 
nean. Among 
the  Egyptians 
and  Assyrians 
enameling  was 
used  more  fre- 
quently than 
glazing,  and 
their  works  are 
consequently  a 
kind  of  faience, 
consisting  of  a 
loose  frit  or 
body,  to  which 
an  enamel  ad- 
heres, after  only 


a  slight  fusion. 
After  the  fall 
of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  art 
o  f  enameling 
terra  cotta  dis- 
appeared 
among  the  Arab 
and  Moorish 
races,  who  had 
retained  a  tra- 
ditional knowl- 
edge of  the  pro- 
cess. The  appli- 
cation of  a  trans- 
parent vitreous 
coating  or  glaze 
over  the  entire 
surface,  like  the 
varnish  of  a  pic- 
tu»re,  is  also 
referable  to  a 
high  antiquity, 
and  was  univer- 
sally adopted, 
e  i  t  h  e  r  to  en- 
hance  the 
beauty  of  single 
colors  or  to  pro- 
mote the  com- 
bination  of 


many.     Innumerable  fragments   and  remains  of  glazed  vases,  fabri- 
cated by  the  Greeks  and   Romans,  not  only  prove  the  early  use  of 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


255 


glazing,  but   also  exhibit   in   the   present   day  many  of  the   noblest 
efforts  of  the  potter's  art." 


It  is  true  that  on  the  Greek,  Etruscan  and  Roman  pottery  a  sub- 
dued and  hardly  apparent  glazing  was  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 


256 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


pieces,  but  it  is  so  slight  as  to  leave  a  barely  appreciable  effect  upon 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."]  JEWELRY. 

German  Collective  Exhibit. 


\The  Main  Building. 


the   eye,  beyond   that  which    might   be   produced   by  a   mechanical 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


257 


polish,  and  so  thinly  laid  on  as  almost  to  defy  attempts  at  proving 
its  nature  by  chemical  investigation ;  it  is,  however,  supposed  to  have 
been  produced  by  a  dilute  aluminous  soda-glass,  without  any  trace 
of  lead  in  its  composition,  the  greater  portion  of  which  was  absorbed 
into  the  substance  of  the  piece,  thereby  increasing  its  hardness  and 
leaving  only  a  faint  polish  on  the  surface  of  the  ware. 

In  Egypt  and  the  east  the  use  of  a  distinct  glaze — invetriatura  of 
the  Italians — covering  the  otherwise  more  porous  substance  of  the 
vessel,  appears  to  have  been  known  and  to  have  arrived  at  great  per- 
fection at  a  very  remote  period.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  superior  ware, 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  l8j6."\ 


JEWELRY. 

tan  Collective  Exhibit. 


[The  Main  Building. 


equivalent  to  the  porcelain  of  our  days,  and  from  the  technical  excel- 
lence of  some  of  the  smaller  pieces  has  been  frequently,  but  wrongly, 
so  called. 

It  will  perhaps  be  as  well,  before  entering  further  into  the  con- 
sideration of  the  subject,  to  define  and  arrange  the  objects  of  our 
attention  under  general  heads. 

Pottery — Faience,  Terraglia — as  distinct  from  porcelain,  is  formed 
of  potter's  clay  mixed  with  marl  of  argillaceous  and  calcareous 
nature  and  sand,  variously  proportioned,  and  may  be  classed  under 
two  divisions:  Soft — Faience  a  pate  tendre — and  Hard — Faience  a 
pate  dure — according  to  the  nature  of  the  composition  or  the  degree 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


of  heat  under  which  it  has  been 

generally  as   earthenware   is  soft 

are  hard.     The 

characteristics 

of  the    soft 

wares   are  a 

paste,  or  body, 

which   may  be 

scratched  with 

a  knife  or  file, 

and     fusibility, 

generally,  at 

the   heat   of  a 

porcelain 

furnace. 

These  soft 
wares  may  be 
again  divided 


fired  in  the  kiln.  What  is  known 
,  while  stoneware,  queensware,  etc. 
into  four  sub- 
divisions: un- 
gl  azed,  1  u  s- 
trous,  glazed 
and  enameled. 
Among  the 
three  first  of 
these  subdi- 
visions may  be 
arranged  al- 
most all  the 
ancient  pottery 
of  Egypt, 
Greece,  Etruria 


and  Rome;  as 
also  the  larger 
portion  of  that 


*'77k*  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


GERMAN    STEINGUT. 


[The  Main  Building; 


in  general  use  among  all  nations  during  medieval  and  modern  times. 
We  shall  be  occupied  with  the  glazed  and  enameled  wares;  the  first 
of  which  may  be  again  divided  into  siliceous  or  glass  glazed  and 
plumbeous  or  lead  glazed. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


259 


In  these  subdivisions  the  foundation  is  in  all  cases  the  same.  The 
mixed  clay  or  "paste"  or  "body" — varied  in  composition  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  glaze  to  be  superimposed — is  formed  by  the 


hand,  or  on  the  wheel,  or  impressed  into  moulds;  then  slowly  dried 
and  baked  in  a  furnace  or  stove,  after  which,  on  cooling,  it  is  in  a 
state  to  receive  the  glaze.  This  is  prepared  by  fusing  sand  or  other 
siliceous  material  with  potash  or  soda  to  form  a  translucent  glass, 


260 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  composition,  in  the  main,  of  the  glaze  upon  siliceous  wares. 
The  addition  of  a  varying  but  considerable  quantity  of  the  oxide  of 
lead,  by  which  it  is  rendered  more  easily  fusible  but  still  translucent, 


constitutes  the  glaze  of  plumbeous  wares;  and  the  further  addition 
.of  the  oxide  of  tin  produces  an  enamel  of  an  opaque  white  of  great 
purity,  which  is  the  characteristic  glazing  of  stanniferous  or  tin- 
glazed  wares.  In  every  case  the  vitreous  substance  is  reduced  to  the 
finest  powder  by  mechanical  and  other  means,  being  milled  with 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  261 

water  to  the  consistency  of  cream ;  into  this  the  dry  and  absorbent 
baked  piece  is  dipped  and  withdrawn,  leaving  a  coating  of  the  material 
of  the  bath  adhering  to  its  surface.  A  second  firing,  when  quite  dry, 
fuses  this  coating  into  a  glazed  surface  on  the  piece,  rendering  it 
lustrous  and  impermeable  to  liquids.  The  two,  former  of  these 
glazes  may  be  variously  colored  by  the  admixture  of  metallic 
oxides,  as  copper  for  green,  iron  for  yellow,  etc.;  but  they  are 
nevertheless  translucent  and  show  the  natural  color  of  the  baked  clay 
beneath. 

The  vitreous,  silico-alkaline  or  glass-glazed  wares  were  of  very 
ancient  date  and  in  all  probability  had  their  origin  in  the  East,  in 
Egypt,  or  India,  or  Phoenicia;  indeed,  the  discovery  of  glass — which 
has  always  been  attributed  to  the  latter  country— would  soon  direct 
the  potter's  attention  to  a  mode  of  covering  his  porous  vessel  of 
baked  earth  with  a  coating  of  the  new  material ;  but  the  ordinary 
baked  clay  would  not  take  or  hold  the  glaze,  which  rose  in  bubbles 
and  scaled  off,  refusing  to  adhere  to  the  surface,  and  it  became  neces- 
sary to  form  the  pieces  of  a  mixed  material,  consisting  of  much 
siliceous  sand,  some  aluminous  earth  and  probably  a  small  portion 
of  alkali,  thus  rendering  it  of  a  nature  approximating  to  that  of  the 
glaze  and  to  which  the  latter  firmly  adhered.  In  some  instances,  on 
the  finer  examples  which  may  probably  have  been  exposed  to  a 
higher  temperature  in  the  oven,  the  glaze  and  the  body  of  the  piece 
have  become  so  incorporated  as  to  produce  a  semi-translucent  sub- 
stance, analogous  to  some  artificial  porcelains.  In  its  nature  this 
glaze  is  translucent  and,  accordingly,  we  find  that  when  ornamented 
with  designs  they  are  executed  directly  on  the  "biscuit,"  or  unglazed 
surface  of  the  piece,  which  then  receives  its  vitreous  covering  through 
which  they  are  apparent.  By  means  of  an  oxide  of  copper  the 
exquisite  turquoise-blue  of  ancient  Egypt,  "scarcely  rivaled  after 
thirty  centuries  of  human  experience,"  was  produced.  The  green 
color  was,  perhaps,  given  by  means  of  another  oxide  of  the  same 
metal ;  violet  by  manganese  or  gold,  yellow  by  silver  or  perhaps 
by  iron,  and  the  rarer  red  perhaps  by  the  protoxide  of  copper. 
We  also  find  that  bricks  and  vases  of  similar  glazing,  brought 


262  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,   1876. 

to  its  greatest  perfection  in  Egypt,  were  made  by  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians. 

Throughout  Babylonia  the  sites  of  ancient  buildings  afford  frag- 
ments of  glazed  pottery.  The  glaze  of  those  brought  from  Borsippa 
by  the  Abbe  Beauchamp,  in  1790,  was  analyzed  and  found  to  con- 
tain neither  the  oxides  of  lead  nor  tin,  but  to  be  an  alkaline  silicate 
with  alumina,  colored  by  metallic  oxides.  A  more  recent  analysis 
of  Assyrian  examples  shows  that,  with  a  base  of  silicate  of  soda  or 
soda-glass  and  oxide  of  tin  the  opaque-white  has  been  produced, 
being  the  earliest  recorded  example  of  "enameled"  ware.  A  small 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."]  JARDINIERE.  [The  Main  Building. 

The  Royal  Porcelain  Works  of  Berlin. 

quantity  of  oxide  of  lead  was  also  found  in  the  blue  glaze  on  tiles 
from  Babylonia.  At  Warka — probably  the  ancient  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees— there  were  discovered  numerous  coffins  or  sarcophagi, 
piled  one  upon  another  to  the  height  of  forty-five  feet,  of  peculiar 
form  and  made  of  terra  cotta  glazed  with  a  siliceous  glaze  of  bluish- 
green  color.  They  are  formed  somewhat  like  a  shoe,  an  opening 
being  left  at  the  upper  and  wider  end  for  the  insertion  of  the  body, 
and  closed  by  an  oval  lid  which,  as  well  as  the  upper  part  of  the 
coffin,  is  ornamented  with  figures  and  plants  in  relief.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  be  of  the  Sassanian  period. 

The  metallic  lustre  in  decoration  was  applied,  apparently  at  an 
early  time,  to  pottery  glazed  with  a  siliceous  coating  and  appears  to 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  263 

have  established  itself  in  Persia.  On  specimens  from  Arabia  it  is 
also  found  and  its  use  in  combination  with  this  glaze  may  possibly 
have  preceded  the  manufacture  of  lustred  wares  coated  with  the 
stanniferous  enamel  by  the  eastern  potters  of  the  Balearic  Islands, 
Spain  and  Sicily. 

In  Northern  India,  at  Sind  and  in  Persia,  wares  are  made  at  the 
present  day  of  precisely  the  same  character  as  the  ancient  pottery 
under  consideration.  Pieces  from  the  former  locality,  which  were 
exhibited  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1873,  are  composed  of  a 
sandy,  argillaceous  frit,  ornamented  with  pattern  in  cobalt  blue 
beneath  a  siliceous  glaze,  similar  to  those  specimens  which  we 
engrave  on  pages  258,  259  and  260,  from  the  exhibits  of  Villeroy  & 
Co.  and  Merklebach.  Indeed,  their  agreement  in  technical  character 
with  some  of  the  pottery  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  and 
with  that  produced  in  Syria  and  Persia  during  the  fourteenth, 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  is  most  remarkable.  Persia  also  now 
produces  inferior  wares  of  the  same  class. 

We  thus  see  how  widely  spread,  and  at  how  early  a  period,  the 
use  of  this  most  ancient  mode  of  glazing  was  established  and  brought 
to  perfection.  It  was  the  parent  of  all  those  wares  now  known  as 
Persian,  Damascus,  Rhodian,  or  Lindus. 

From  the  truly  regal  display  of  porcelain  made  by  the  Royal 
Porcelain  Works  at  Berlin,  we  select  for  illustration,  on  page  262,  a 
masterpiece  in  its  way.  It  is  a  large  oval  vessel  intended  to  be  used 
as  a  Wine-Cooler,  or  if  desired  it  can  be  used,  as  it  is  at  the  present 
time,  for  a  Jardiniere.  In  either  use  it  makes  a  very  striking  and 
beautiful  object;  but  the  design  and  style  of  ornamentation  make  the 
former  purpose  preferable.  The  material,  though  porcelain,  is  treated 
so  as  to  resemble  Italian  majolica,  and  none  but  an  expert  could  pro- 
nounce upon  its  genuineness.  The  design  is  masterly  and  the  exe- 
cution faultless.  Nothing  could  be  more  spirited  than  the  lines  of 
the  Triton's  head,  the  modeling  of  the  mermaids  who  clasp  hands 
above  his  waving  locks,  and  the  graceful  curves  of  their  attitude. 
The  handles  on  either  side  are  ornamented  with  masks  and  scroll- 
works suggesting  shells,  and  a  simple  border  above  and  below  serves 


264 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


to  give  finish  to  the  rim  and  base.  There  is  an  entire  absence  of 
anything  like  "  finnikiness  "  about  the  ornamentation  of  the  piece  that 
makes  it  appear  peculiarly  massive  and  noble.  Every  part  of  the 
design  is  drawn  with  a  strong,  bold  hand,  suggestive  of  the  best 
period  of  this  style  of  work. 

Crossing  the   central   transept,  we   re-enter  the   exhibit   of  the 


"The  Great  Exhibition.  1876."} 


SILVER    PITCHER. 

By  Gorliam  Manufacturing  Company. 


Gorham  Manufacturing  Company,  from  which  we  engrave — above — 
a  mug  in  silver,  with  one  of  Mr.  Pairpont's  exquisite  designs  worked 
in  repousse,  and  a  vase,  on  the  next  page,  of  Greek  design,  with  Night 
in  relief  on  a  stipple  background.  The  stall  next  to  the  Gorham 
Company's  is  occupied  by  Messrs.  Tiffany  &  Co.,  of  New  York, 
from  whose  exhibit  we  engrave  the  best  in  their  stall — the  "Comanche 
Cup" — which  will  be  found  on  page  266.  The  main  figure  represents 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


265 


a  Comanche  hunter  armed  with  a  rifle,  clinging  dexterously  to  a 
galloping  mustang  in  such  a  way  as  to  shield  his  body  and  retain  the 
use  of  his  arms  for  defence  or  attack.  The  bas-relief  on  the  pedestal 
is  a  fine  specimen  of  repousse  chasing.  Including  the  base,  it  is 
wrought  wholly  of  sterling  silver. 

The  stall  adjoining  Messrs.  Tiffany's  is  occupied  by  Messrs.  Starr 


&  Marcus,  of 
New  York, 
from  whose 
exhibit  we 
have  selected 
as  the  subject 
for  engraving 
on  page  267, 
the  Diamond 
Necklace  and 
Pendant  which 
occupy  the 
place  of  honor 
in  their  prin- 
cipal  case. 
Our  illustra- 
tion conveys, 
as  well  as  it  is 
possible  f  o  r 
the  graver's 
art  to  do  it,  an 

great;  but  their  value  to  connoisseurs  who  recognize  the  purity  of 
the  stones,  the  evenness  of  their  cutting,  and  the  exactness  of  size, 
shape  and  brilliancy  in  the  pairs,  hardly  any  estimate  can  be  placed 
upon  their  worth. 

We  wonder  how  many  of  our  readers  know  what  a  natural 
diamond  really  looks  like.  All  are,  of  course,  familiar  with  the  gem 
as  it  is  offered  for  sale  in  the  dealer's  window,  but  few  would  recog- 
nize in  the  insignificant  lump,  looking  more  like  a  morsel  of  clay 


GREEK  VASE,  IN  SILVER. 

J'y  Gorham  Manufacturing  Co. 


idea  of  the 
brilliancy  of 
these  superb 
articles;  but 
whoever  is  pri- 
vileged to  see 
the  originals 
will  realize 
how  impos- 
sible it  is  to 
give  in  black 
and  white 
much  more 
i  dea  of  the 
gems  them- 
s  elves  than 
their  size  and 
shape.  Their 
commercial 
value  we  be- 
lieve is  very 


266 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


than  anything  else,  the  origin  of  the  sparkling  brilliant  which  is  the 
first  and  most  precious  of  all  the  products  of  the  globe.  We  need 
not  enter  into  the  discussion  of  what  the  diamond  really  is.  Whether 


it  is  vegetable  or  mineral,  whether  it  is  pure  carbon  or  a  vegetable 
substance  slowly  pressed  into  a  crystalline  form,  is  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined by  science.  But  some  notion  of  the  manner  in  which  the 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


267 


natural  stone  is  afterwards  treated  may  be  of  interest.  The  workmen 
of  Amsterdam,  as  everybody  knows,  have  almost  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  of  diamond-cutting.  Standing  before  a  swiftly-revolving  steel 
disc,  called  a  "  skaif,"  lubricated  with  oil,  the  diamond-cutter  presses 
the  diamond,  soldered  into  a  brass  holder,  against  the  steel,  and 


DIAMOND   NECKLACE  AND    PENDANT. 

By  Starr  &•  Marcus. 


grinds  down  one  of  the  faces  or  facets.  The  shape  into  which  the 
diamond  is  to  be  cut  has  been  determined  beforehand,  but  it  is  often 
necessary  to  change  the  original  design  as  the  work  progresses, 
owing  to  flaws  or  imperfections  in  the  stone.  After  one  face  is 
ground,  the  stone  is  taken  from  the  solder,  cemented  so  as  to  present 
another  surface,  and  so  the  work  progresses.  It  is  easy  to  conceive 
how  delicate  must  be  the  manipulation  to  produce  the  exact  angles 


268 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


for  the  highest  refraction  of  light  in  a  stone  which  is  cut  into,  say, 
fifty-eight  facets.  A  slight  slip  may  damage  a  gem  to  the  extent  of 
hundreds  of  dollars.  It  is  not  generally  known,  yet  it  is  well  for 
those  who  possess  diamonds  to  know,  that  it  is  a  dangerous  experi- 
ment to  emulate  the  example  of  Francis  the  First  of  France,  and 


•The  Great  Exhibition.  fS76."} 


NECKLACE. 

By  Morgan  &  Headiey. 


\The  Main  Building. 


attempt  to  scratch  with  them  upon  glass.  The  glazier's  diamond 
always  presents  a  natural  angle  as  the  cutting  edge ;  but  as  the  gem 
has  artificial  angles,  it  may  be  that  one  of  these  may  be  used  by  the 
amateur,  and  owing  to  the  peculiar  crystalline  structure  of  the 
diamond  he  will  be  dismayed  to  find  that  he  has  split  off"  a  portion 
of  the  stone  and  ruined  its  beauty  and  symmetry  for  ever. 

Continuing  in  the  region  of  the  American  silverware  and  jewelry, 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


269 


the  former  especially  being  a  noble  exhibit,  we  turn  now  to  the  latter 
branch  of  manufacture  which  is  but  a  civilized  expression  of  a  desire 
inherent  to  human  nature — the  love  for  personal  adornment.  It  is 
the  same  in  the  savage  of  the  wilderness  as  in  the  citizen  of  Paris. 
The  Indian  woman  smearing  her  face  with  colored  clays,  the  negro 
hanging  her  string  of  shells  about  her  neck,  the  lady  at  her  toilette 
fastening  jewels  in  her  ears  or  clasping  a  bracelet  upon  her  arm,  each 
and  all  are  actuated  by  the  same  desire  to  beautify  themselves.  The 
art  of  the  goldsmith  and  jeweler  owes  its  perfection  to  this  feeling. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  i8r6."\ 


CAMEOS. 

Morgan  &  Headley. 


\TheMainBuilding. 


On  pages  268,  269  and  270  our  engravings  illustrate  specimens  of 
this  work  from  the  establishment  of  Messrs.  Morgan  &  Headley,  of 
of  Philadelphia.  Looking  at  these  objects  from  a  utilitarian  stand- 
point, what  could  be  more  useless  than  they  ?  How  senseless  it 
seems  to  weight  one's  body  down  with  metal  trinkets  !  Fortunately, 
however,  the  refinements  of  civilization  find  other  expression  than  in 
requiring  all  objects  to  be  useful. 

We  are  now  considering  its  other  great  want — the  ornamental. 
Here  are  several  pieces,  each  one  of  which  helps  to  supply  this  want. 
Of  the  lockets,  all  gain  increased  beauty  from  another  art,  of  which 
we  may  speak  at  some  other  time— the  art  of  the  cameo-cutter  or 
lapidary.  Each  of  the  designs  is  different,  some  suggesting  the 


270 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


study  of  antique  models,  others  the  artists'  own  design.  The  cross 
is  of  a  different  pattern  from  any  of  the  other  specimens.  It  is  made 
in  two  different  colors  of  gold,  the  points  of  the  lighter-colored 
metal.  This  is  a  favorite  style  of  workmanship  at  present,  and  is 
capable  of  excellent  effects.  The  other  specimens,  as  far  as  the  gold- 
smith's work  is  concerned,  is  but  the  setting  of  a  dozen  gems.  In 
the  centre  of  the  pin  is  a  large  amethyst  surrounded  by  a  narrow 
rim  of  gold,  about  which  again  is  a  string  of  small  pearls.  The 
whole  effect  is  very  neat  and  pretty. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


JEWELRY. 

&  Headley. 


\The  Main  Building. 


Murg, 


From  the  Meriden  Britannia  Company,  of  West  Meriden,  Con- 
necticut, we  have  a  group — engraved  on  the  next  page — in  the  fine 
white  metal,  heavily  silver-plated,  which  is  their  specialty,  represent- 
ing a  scene  such  as  cannot  be  witnessed  outside  of  America.  The 
artist,  whom  we  feel  safe  in  pronouncing  an  American,  has  desired  to 
illustrate  something  exclusively  our  own.  With  this  intent,  he  could 
hardly  have  chosen  anything  more  fully  answering  his  desire  than 
the  characteristic  group  shown  in  our  engraving.  It  is  a  Buffalo 
Hunt,  not  as  practised  in  our  day,  when  the  poor  brutes  are 
slaughtered  by  hundreds,  for  mere  sport,  by  bands  of  white  hunts- 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING, 


271 


men  armed  with  repeating  rifles,  but  as  in  the  days  of  old,  before  the 
crack  of  a  firearm  was  heard,  when  the  Indian  of  the  plains  hunted 


his  game  with  the  spear  and  bow.     There  is  an  equality  in  such  a 
contest  as  this  as  makes  the   group  one  of  thrilling   interest.     The 


272 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.      . 


273 


supreme  moment  of  the  battle  has  been  chosen.     The  infuriated  bull, 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  ,S76."\  SILVER  S WING-PITCHER.  I  The  Main  Buying. 

Hy  Middtetanun  Plate  Company. 

wounded  by  an  arrow,  has  turned  and  is  charging  the  hunter ;  the 


274 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Indian,  firmly  bracing  himself  upon  his  unbridled  steed,  whom  he 
guides  by  the  pressure  of  the  knees,  is  waiting,  with  uplifted  spear, 
the  onset.  The  horse,  terrified,  yet  under  too  good  control  to  fly, 
snorts  and  paws  the  ground.  Action  is  expressed  in  every  muscle 
of  each  figure  in  the  group ;  and  one  cannot  but  feel,  after  looking  at 
it  Tor  a  moment,  a  certain  sensation  of  expectancy,  a  wish  that  the 
denouement  could  be  acted  out,  which  are  sensations  attesting  the 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


PROGRESS  CUP. 

By  Reed  &  Barton. 


\The  Main  Building. 


realistic  power  of  the  artist.  The  group  stands  twenty-one  inches 
in  height  upon  a  base  twenty-seven  inches  long.  It  has  been 
carefully  and  skilfully  finished  and  would  form  a  fine  centre-piece 
for  a  buffet  or  a  mantel-shelf.  We  also  engrave,  on  page  272, 
portion  of  a  silver  service  exhibited  by  the  Meriden  Britannia 
Company.  From  the  exhibit  of  the  Middletown  Plate  Company  we 
engrave  on  page  273  a  silver  Swing-Pitcher  of  most  beautiful  design 
carefully  manipulated. 

It  is  quite  fitting  and  natural  that  at  the  present  time,  when  we 
are  celebrating  our  Centennial,  that  our  manufacturers,  in  producing 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


275 


simply  ornamental  figures,  should  desire  to  typify,  by  every  means  in 
their  power,  the  eventful  hundred  years  of  the  nation's  history.  The 
theme  is  a  grand  one,  capable  of  being  treated  in  a  thousand  different 
ways  and  viewed  from  a  thousand  different  standpoints ;  and,  there- 
fore, the  number  of  groups  which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Exposition 
illustrative  of  this  subject  is,  perhaps,  larger  than  of  any  other  sub- 


1  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}     EPERGNE.— SILVER  AND  GLASS. 

By  Reed  &•  Barton. 


[  The  Main  Building. 


ject.  Among  these  manufacturers  are  Reed  &  Barton,  of  Taunton, 
Massachusetts,  who  send  a  large  group,  symbolic  of  Progress, — 
engraved  on  page  274 — which  was  designed  by  W.  C.  Beattie.  Its 
length  is  five  feet,  and  its  height  four  and  a  half  feet.  The  progress 
of  America  from  savage  to  civilized  life  is  represented  by  a  contrast 
between  its  condition  in  the  fifteenth  and  the  nineteenth  centuries. 
On  the  left  hand  we  have  a  group  representing  the  primitive  state  of 


276 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the   country:  the   party  of  savage  Aztecs  thinking  of  nothing  but 
war — even  the  mother  teaching  her  tender  offspring  the  use  of  the 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1870."] 


URN.— REPOUSSE  SILVER. 

By  Reed  &  Barton. 


\  The  Main  Building. 


bow ;  the  barren  rocks  and  scattered  bones  indicating  the  lack  of  all 
notion  of  profiting  by  the  fruitfulness  of  the  soil,  while  the  angry 
serpent  may  be  looked  upon  as  typifying  the  fight  with  untamed  nature. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


277 


Four   centuries   pass,  and  behold  the  contrast !     The  Genius  of 


POT,  PITCHER  AND  BOWL.— REPOUSSE  SILVER. 

By  Reed  &•  Barton. 

Columbia,  bearing  the  olive-branch  of  peace   in   one  hand,  and  the 


COMMUNION  SERVICE.— REPOUSSE  SILVER-WORK. 

By  Reed  &•  Barton. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  279 

fasces  of  just  government  in  the  other,  passes  before  us.  Mercury, 
the  swift-footed  god  of  commerce  and  oratory,  leads  her  steed  by  a 
flowery  bridle,  and  thus  symbolizes  the  guiding  influences  of  his  arts 
which  have  led  us  to  prosperity.  Beside  Columbia  walks  Plenty, 
with  her  overflowing  cornucopia ;  while  beneath  their  feet  spring  the 
plants  and  fruits  which  indicate  the  prosperous  results  of  agriculture. 
A  student-group  in  advance,  surrounded  by  the  implements  of  science 
and  studying  problems  which  will  still  further  advance  our  interests, 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1676."]      TORTOISE-SHELL  NECKLACE.  [The  Main  £uildin?. 

By  y.  S.  Adams,   &•  Co.,  Providence. 

indicates  that  the  future  holds  in  store  for  us  other  knowledge  and 
that  to  the  progress  already  made  more  is  to  be  added.  A  bas-relief 
upon  the  pedestal  represents  the  landing  of  Columbus,  and  above 
rises  the  vase  with  the  dove  and  olive-leaf,  typical  of  the  peaceful 
period  during  which  the  arts  have  flourished.  Surmounting  the 
whole  is  the  figure  of  Liberty,  standing  upon  a  broken  chain,  bearing 
in  one  hand  the  palm  of  victory,  while  with  the  other  she  holds  the 
scroll  on  which  is  inscribed  the  record  of  our  progress.  She  is  the 
inspiring  genius  to  whose  benign  influence  we  owe  our  prosperity. 


280 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


CLOCK. 

By  Mitchell,  yance  &  Co. 


{The  Main  Building. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  281 

The  same  firm  also  exhibit   the  Epergne  and   the   table    dishes    in 
repousse  silver,  which  we  engrave  on  pages  275,  276,  277  and  278. 

Tortoise-shell  is  a  material  so  beautiful  in  itself,  and  in  some 
respects  so  easily  worked  that,  in  spite  of  its  fragile  nature  and  the 
loss  which  manufacturers  undergo  from  breakage  in  the  process  of 
working,  it  has  been  found  so  profitable  as  to  insure  for  it  a  per- 
manent place  in  our  jewelry  shops.  The  play  of  light  upon  such  a 
necklace  as  that  represented  on  the  page  279,  from  the  establish- 
ment of  Messrs.  J.  S.  Adams  &  Co.,  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  is 
really  enchanting.  The  eye  loses  itself  in  the  soft  depths  of  the 
shell.  The  pattern  is  simple,  but  very  pretty,  and  the  pendant  shows 
to  great  perfection  the  beauty  of  the  material.  As  jewelry  for  the 
morning,  to  wear  against  a  simple  house-dress  or  a  walking-suit, 
there  is  nothing  so  serviceable.  It  is  easy  to  put  on,  beautiful  to  see, 
contrasts  well  with  dress  of  any  color,  and  is  comparatively  inex- 
pensive. An  artistic  design  is  nowhere  more  exquisitely  effective 
than  in  tortoise-shell. 

Industrial  Art  does  not  fully  achieve  its  end  unless  all  articles  of 
domestic  use  are  redeemed  from  the  hopeless  ugliness  into  which 
they  have  fallen,  so  that  our  eyes  shall  be  pleased  and  not  pained  by 
the  surroundings  of  our  daily  life.  It  is  noteworthy  that  most  of 
this  ugliness  is  produced  by  the  desire  to  decorate,  which,  in  the 
work  of  men  destitute  of  artistic  taste,  results  in  meaningless  and 
disagreeable  perversion.  There  is  a  certain  beauty  in  fitness,  and  a 
coal-scuttle  or  a  kitchen-pail  which  is  evidently  constructed  so  as 
best  to  fulfil  its  purpose  is  fully  justified.  If,  in  addition,  the  lines  of 
structure  can  be  made  pleasing  to  the  eye,  so  much  the  better;  but 
the  first  requisite  is  that  the  thing  shall  do  honest  work.  But  a 
curved  or  twisted  or  bedizened  piece  of  furniture,  whose  shape  or 
ornament  interferes  with  its  function,  is  hateful  to  gods  and  men. 
Then,  too,  we  must  recognize  that  some  pieces  of  furniture,  such  as 
cabinets  or  sideboards,  lend  themselves  naturally  to  a  beautiful  con- 
struction, while  others,  such  as  clocks,  gas-fixtures,  and  especially 
chandeliers,  offer  much  greater  difficulty.  With  the  latter,  the 
problem  is  to  suspend  a  large  and  heavy  mass  in  the  air  and  yet  to 


282 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


overcome,  by  the  grace  of  its  outlines  and  the  beauty  of  its  ornament, 
the  reluctance  of  the  eye  to  see  the  law  of  gravitation  apparently 
violated.  This  difficulty  proves  too  great  for  most  designers,  and 
frequently,  in  attempting  to  elaborate  and  ornament  their  work,  they 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


DIANA  CLOCK. 

By  Mitchell,  Vance  &•  Co. 


[The  Main  Building. 


fall  into  more  positive  ugliness.  Really  graceful  designs,  therefore, 
for  interior  metal-work  deserve  high  praise.  Such  designs  are  shown 
in  the  articles  of  Messrs.  Mitchell,  Vance  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  on  pages 
280,  282,  283,  285,  286  and  287.  Their  designs  have  achieved  decided 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


283 


success  in  the  present  cases.  The  ornamentations  are  elaborate  but 
not  overloaded,  and  the  whole  have  an  appearance  of  lightness  and 
elegance.  There  would  be  no  difficulty  in  filling  a  volume  with 
illustrations  of  Messrs.  Mitchell  Vance  &  Co.'s  exhibit,  but  we  have 


•  The  Great  Exhibition,  1676."] 


ART. 

By  Mitchell,  Vance  &•  Cc 


[The  Main  Building. 


already  afforded  too  much  space — and  cheerfully — to  such  a  noble 
display.  Prominent  in  their  pavilion  stood  the  bronze  bust  of  a 
woman  who  lived,  if  she  lived  at  all,  in  a  time  when  men  would  have 
scorned  the  thought  that  any  of  her  sex  could  minister  to  their  intel- 
lectual pleasure.  Her  whole  duty  in  life  was  to  make  herself  beau- 


284  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

tiful — to  present  herself  before  her  lord  decked  out  in  all  the  bravery 
of  barbaric  ornament.  How  elaborate  this  was  can  be  estimated 
from  the  elaborateness  of  the  head-dress  which  we  saw  here.  Yet, 
no  one  could  look  upon  the  perfect  contour  of  her  face,  the  firm  lips, 
the  noble  brow  and  calm,  steadfast  gaze  of  the  eye,  without  believing 
that  here  at  least  was  a  woman  intellectually  man's  equal.  The 
visitor  would  not  fail  to  observe  the  bronze  pedestal  on  which  the 
bust  rested,  which  was  in  itself  a  remarkably  fine  and  perfect  piece 
of  designing.  The  pedestal  was  triangular  in  shape,  its  columnar 
ornamentation — the  upper  and  lower  members — having  all  the  sim- 
plicity and  severity  of  Egyptian  outlines.  The  decoration  of  the 
base  with  a  certain  orientalism  in  the  arrangement  of  the  pyramidal 
designs  and  the  lotus — the  sacred  flower  of  the  Nile — all  worked  in 
as  an  accessory  to  the  detail. 

Our  next  engraving  is  from  an  exhibit  made  by  a  Philadelphia 
firm,  who  have  had  the  products  of  their  factories  in  every  one 
of  the  great  exhibitions  where  their  work,  by  its  beauty  and 
finish,  as  well  as  its  artistic  design,  has  always  attracted  great 
attention.  But  Cornelius  &  Sons,  the  firm  of  whom  we  are 
speaking,  quite  outdo  themselves  in  the  quality  of  the  work  they 
have  prepared  for  exhibition  in  this  our  first  great  International 
Exposition. 

Our  illustrations  of  a  Hall  Lamp  and  a  Chandelier,  shown  on 
pages  289  and  290,  are  taken  from  their  collection  containing  many 
specimens  equally  meritorious.  In  these  days,  when  the  correct 
furnishing  of  our  homes  is  a  matter  of  careful  study  and  reflection ; 
when  true  art  principles  are  beginning  to  prevail,  and  attention  is 
paying  to  the  fitness  of  means  to  ends;  people  are  making  search 
for  good  and  beautiful  forms  in  the  most  ordinary  appliances  as  well 
as  in  the  more  permanent  objects,  called  fixtures.  Cornelius  and 
Sons  have  not  only  met  this  demand  in  their  special  line  of  goods, 
they  even  have  stimulated  it  by  exhibiting  freely  to  the  public 
thoroughly  artistic  designs.  Such  a  hall  lamp  as  the  one  we  illus- 
trate is  as  much  an  ornament  to  the  apartment  it  illuminates  as  a 
statue  in  marble  or  bronze.  So,  too,  with  the  Chandelier:  the  ele- 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


385 


gance  and  lightness  of  its  proportions,  the  richness  of  its  effect  when 
all  its  burners  are  lit,  is  most  noteworthy.  It  is  with  such  every-day  sur- 
roundings as  these  that  we  make  our  homes  really  and  truly  beautiful. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


SHAKESPEARE. 

Ry  Mitchell,  Vance  &•  Co. 


[  The  Main  Building. 


Another  superb  exhibit  in  the  same  branch  of  industry  was  that 
made  by  Messrs.  Pancoast  &  Archer,  of  New  York,  from  whose 
display  we  engrave,  on  pages  291,  292  and  293,  a  beautiful  chandelier 


286 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


and  tw  o  H  al  1 
Standards,  all 
graceful  in  design 
and  well  calcu- 
lated to  please  the 
most  critical 
observer. 

Our  next  en- 
graving— on  page 
293 — is  of  a  kind 
to  require  but  little 
description  other 
than  to  call  atten- 
tion to  its  techni- 
cal merits  and  to 
indicate  the  mate- 
rials and  method 
of  its  construc- 
t  i  o  n.  It  repre- 
sents a  pair  of 
large  double  doors 
very  highly  pol- 
ished, suitable  for 
the  entrance  into 
a  drawing-room, 
or  into  any  of  the 
more  elaborate 
apartments  of  a 
mansion.  It  is  an 
excellent  speci- 
men of  the  work 
of  Messrs.  Allen 
&  Bro.,  of  Phila- 
delphia.  The 
and  separated  by  fillets  of  a  chaste  design, 


WALL-CLOCK. 

By  Mitchell,  Vance  &  Co. 


leaves  of  this  door 
are  composed  of 
h  i  g  h  1  y-polished 
walnut,  with  orna- 
mented panels  of 
alternate  strips  of 
precious  woods 
of  different  colors, 
giving  a  pleasing 
relief  and  effect  of 
light  and  shade. 
Scroll  patterns  and 
some  curved  lines 
are  introduced 
into  the  lock-rail 
and  break  the  se- 
verity of  the  out- 
lines. On  each  of 
the  main  panels  a 
finely-finished  bit 
of  hand-carving 
has  been  affixed 
by  way  of  orna- 
mentation, and  the 
scroll  surrounding 
them  is  happily 
introduced  to 
lighten  the  upper 
panels.  The  lower 
divisions  of  the 
jambs  are  inlaid 
with  slabs  of  finely 
variegated  mar- 
bles, above  which, 
are  narrow  panels  of  the 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING 


287 


'The  Great  Exhibition, 


VANITY. 

Hy  Mitchell,  Vance  &•  Co. 


[The  Main  Building 


same  precious  woods  as  the  door ;    the  whole  being  surmounted  at 


288 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  lintel  by  an  elaborate  design  in  high  relief,  which  gives  to 
the  jambs  the  effect  of  pillars,  of  which  these  reliefs  are  the  capitals. 
It  is  remarkable  that  common  as  was  the  use  of  doors  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  none  of  those  used  in  their  temples  have  ever 
been  found.  But  that  there  were  doors  is  evidenced  by  the  holes  in 


the  side-posts 
or  pillars  in 
which  the 
hin  ge-p  i  ns 
were  fastened. 
It  is  possible 
that  as  the 
Egypt  ian  s 
were  metal- 
workers these 
doors  were  of 
metal,  but 
those  used  in 
their  houses 
were  usually 
f  r  a  m  e  d  of 
wood  and  often 
stained  first,  as 
at  the  present 
day.  These 
doors  were 
either  double 


PEDESTAL  AND  VASE. 

By  Mitchell,  Vance  &  Co. 


or  single,  and 
fastened  by  a 
bolt  or  bar 
similar  to 
those  now  in 
use.  The  Bible 
contains  many 
allusions  to  the 
door  and  en- 
trance to  the 
house,  and  in 
several  places 
allusion  is 
made  to  the 
custom  of 
placing  a  man 
against  the 
door-post  and 
pinning  his  ear 
to  it  with  an 
awl,  in  token 
of  servitude. 


In  the  description  of  the  building  of  Solomon's  Temple  we  have 
the  following  description  of  the  magnificent  carved  doors  of  the 
oracle  and  the  temple : — 

"And  for  the  entering  of  the  oracle  he  made  doors  of  olive  tree : 
the  lintel  and  side  posts  were  a  fifth  part  of  the  wall.  The  two  doors 
also  were  of  olive  tree;  and  he  carved  upon  them  carvings  of 
cherubim  and  palm  trees  and  open  flowers,  and  overlaid  them  with 
gold,  and  spread  gold  upon  the  cherubim,  and  upon  the  palm  trees. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


289 


So  also  made  he  for  the 
door  of  the  temple  posts 
of  olive  tree,  a  fourth 
part  of  the  wall.  And  the 
doors  were  of  fir  tree: 
the  two  leaves  of  the 
one  door  were  folding, 
and  the  two  leaves  of 
the  other  door  were 
folding.  And  he  carved 
thereon  cherubim  and 
palm  trees  and  open 
flowers :  and  covered 
them  with  gold  fitted 
upon  the  carved  work." 
It  was  also  the  cus- 
tom in  Egypt  to  build 
the  better  class  of  houses 
with  a  porch  or  portico 
in  front  of  the  entrance 
door,  su  pported  by 
columns  elaborately  or- 
namented with  wreaths 
and  garlands,  decorating 


•The  Great  Exhibition, 


the  frieze  also,  and  in- 
scribing thereon  some 
legend  of  greeting  or 
welcome. 

Another  custom 
among  the  Egyptians 
was  the  hanging  of  all 
doors  opening  on  the 
street  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  opened  inward. 
This,  too,  was  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Romans, 
where  it  was  made  re- 
quisite by  law.  But  it 
is  a  curious  fact  that  the 
reverse  of  this  was  the 
practice  in  Greece, 
where,  when  a  person 
was  about  going  out  of 
a  house,  he  took  the 
precaution  to  give  seve- 
ral loud  raps  from  within, 
in  order  to  warn  passers- 
by  on  the  outside  that 


CHANDELIER. 

By  Cornelius  &  Sons. 


j  The  Main  Ruildiiig. 


the  door  was  about  to  be  opened.     There  is  a  growing  tendency  in 


290 


THE    ORE  A  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


this  country  to   make   certain   homely  articles  of  furniture   appear, 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.''] 


HALL    LAMP. 

By  Cornltius  &•  Sons. 


[The  Main  Building. 


when  not  in  actual  service,  to  be  something  other  than  they  really 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


291 


are.  Theoreti- 
cally, this  ten- 
dency is  a  bad  one, 
because  it  par- 
takes more  or 
less  of  sham, 
which,  if  we  may 
be  permitted  to 
use  the  figure  of 
speech,  is  a  par- 
tially-expl  ored 
country  of  vast 
extent,  though 
without  determi- 
nate limits,  whose 
inhabitants  and 
all  their  belong- 
ings are  regarded 
with  suspicion 
and  contempt  by 
the  honest  people 
who  have  seen 
how  unsatisfac- 
tory and  unreal 
everything  be^ 
longing  to  them 
proves  to  be.  But 
in  the  modern 
manner  of  living, 
there  are  certain 
conditions  of 
existence  which 
justify  a  certain 
amount  of  decep- 
tion and  indeed, 


STANDARD 
By  Pancoast  &•  Archer. 


renderit   a  1- 
together     praise- 
worthy.    Here, 
for  example,  is  a 
young  couple  of 
moderate   means, 
who  cannot  afford 
to  keep  house  or 
to  rent  a  suite  of 
rooms     in    the 
ne  ighborhood 
where  it  is  desir- 
able for  them  to 
live.    If,  however, 
they  could  man- 
age to   live  in  a 
single  apartment, 
they  could  readily 
afford  to    remain 
near  their  friends. 
The    cabinet- 
maker  of  to-day 
steps  'in  and  tells 
them  that  nothing 
is  easier.    He  will 
supply  them  with 
f  u  r  n  i  t  u  r  e   that 
shall  make  of  the 
one   apartment  a 
bed-room    which 
can  be turned  into 
a  parlor  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice.  He 
provides   them 
with   a    bedstead 


292 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


which,  by  some  ingenious  mechanism,  transforms  itself  into  a  sofa, 
a  wash-stand  that  becomes  a  writing-desk,  a  wardrobe  that  has  the 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


CHANDELIER. 

By  Pancoast  &•  Archer. 


[The  Main  Ruilding. 


appearance  of  a  secretary,  and  the  thing  is  done.  Now,  all  this  is 
a  very  proper  and  justifiable  proceeding.  Our  young  couple  do  not 
want  to  receive  friends  in  a  room  which  suggests  its  use  as  a  bed- 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


293 


room,  and  they 
cannot  sleep  on 
parlor  furniture; 
but  in  this  way 
their  difficulty  has 
been  removed. 

If  we  follow 
the  fortunes  of 
this  imaginary 
pair,  and  look  in 
upon  them  again 
when  their  econo- 
my at  the  start  has 
enabled  them  to 
have  a  house  of 
their  own,  luxuri- 
ously furnished 
with  all  the  ap- 
pliances of  wealth 
and  culture,  we 
find  a  correspond- 
i  ng  desire  to 
make  things  an- 
swer for  several 
useful  purposes, 
and  by  this  econo- 
my of  room  gain 
more  space  for 
what  is  purely 
ornamental.  In 
the  sleeping-room 
for  instance, 
where  there  is 
now  no  necessity 
for  concealing 


STANDARD. 

By  Pancoast  &  Archer. 


the  bed,  we  find 
such  a  wardrobe 
as  that  of  Vol- 
mer's  —  engraved 
on  page  295.  In 
itself  it  is  a  su- 
perb piece  of  fur- 
niture;  but  in 
place  of  a  paneled 
door  we  have  a 
broad  mirror, 
which  thus  gives 
just  that  much 
wall-space  for  pic- 
tures or  what  or- 
naments  we 
please.  Then,  on 
either  side  of  the 
mirror-door  are 
spaces  nicely  con- 
trived to  hold  the 
numberless  little 
articles — statu- 
ettes, vases  and 
pretty  toilet  arti- 
cles— that  women 
love  to  have  about 
them.  Beneath 
the  broad  slab  at 
the  base  of  the 
glass  is  a  roomy 
drawer,  and  on, 
each  side  of  it 
cupboards,  where 
the  "  mysteries  " 


294 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


reat  Exhibition,  1876."} 


DOOR. 

By  Allen  &•  Brother. 


[The  Main  Building 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


295 


of  the  toilet  or  the  jewel-box  may  be  kept  under  lock  and  key.     So 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


WARDROBE. 

fly  G.  fainter. 


(The  Main  Building. 


that  in  short  we  have  an  article  of  furniture  combining  several  uses, 


296  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


•The  Great  Exhibition.  1876."}  EASTLAKE  ORGAN. 

fly  Mason  &•  Hamlin. 


{The  Main  Building. 


THE   MAIN  BUILDING. 


297 


all  grouped  together  into  a  form  of  artistic  beauty.  The  elaboration 
and  finish  of  the  work  is  excellent.  The  light,  delicate  color  of  the 
satin-wood  ground  is  relieved  by  the  rich  mahogany  decorations. 
The  elegantly-curved  lines  of  the  design,  the  finely-wrought  scroll- 
work, the  harmonious  combination  of  effect  at  the  top,  all  help  to 


"The  Great  Exhibition, 


PIANO.— EBONY  CASE. 

By  Hallett,  Da-vis  &  Co. 


{The  Ma 


building. 


make  this  wardrobe  a  real  work  of  art,  an  addition  to  its  primary 
use  as  a  piece  of  necessary  furniture. 

"When  Music,  heavenly  maid,  was  young,"  Pan  piped  upon  a 
reed  and  Apollo  played  upon  his  flute ;  and  both  reed  and  flute  were 
the  essence  of  simplicity  and  grace.  When  David  exorcised  the  evil 
spirit  from  Saul  with  his  harp,  the  instrument  was  still  picturesque  and 
beautiful.  But  when  music  became  more  complex  and  more  special- 
ized, the  difficulty  of  putting  the  "soul  of  sound"  into  a  worthy 


298 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


dwelling-place  became  evident.  What  can  be  uglier  than  an  ordinary 
piano,  with  its  carved  legs  supporting  a  clumsy,  oblong  mass  of 
mahogany  or  rose-wood?  It  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  cabinet- 
making  that  we  cannot  get  straight-legged  furniture.'  The  makers 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


SURVEYORS'  TRANSIT. 

By  W.  &•  L.E.  Gurley. 


\TheMainBuildiHg. 


have  got  it  into  their  heads  that  the  curve  is  the  line  of  beauty,  and 
it  is  of  no  use  to  urge  that  the  grain  of  wood  is  straight,  and  that,  in 
consequence,  every  deviation  from  a  right  line  must  detract  from  the 
strength  of  the  material.  We  must  meet  them  on  the  aesthetic 
ground,  and  say  at  once  that  a  bow-legged  piano  or  table  is  as  ugly 
as  a  bow-legged  man. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


299 


The  beauty  of  musical  instruments,  moreover,  should  always  lie 
rather  in  their  shape  and  adaptation  to  their  purpose  than  in  the 
richness  of  their  ornamentation,  which  is  in  better  taste  if  subdued 
and  simple.  In  this  respect  the  instrument  selected  for  illustration 
on  page.  296  is  without  fault.  Messrs.  Mason  &  Hamlin  have  con- 
structed an  organ  which  we  doubt  not  has  all  the  excellent  qualities 
of  tone  and  resonance  for  which  their  instruments  are  noted,  and 


"The  Great  Kxhibition,  1876."] 


SOLAR  COMPASS. 

By  W.  &•  L.  £.  Gurley. 


\TheMainBuilding. 


whose  exterior  is  pleasant  to  the  eye.  The  decoration  is  quiet  and 
massive,  and  often  of  great  beauty.  It  is  conceived  in  the  Eastlake 
design,  so  far  as  that  can  be  carried  out  in  the  construction  of  an 
organ.  Our  own  taste  would  suggest  an  even  simpler  arrangement 
of  the  mouldings  and  panelings,  and  a  straightening  of  the  lower 
lines ;  but  we  ought  to  be  sincerely  grateful  to  Messrs.  Mason  & 
Hamlin  for  giving  us  an  instrument  free  from  all  the  abortions  in  the 
shape  of  ornament  with  which  many  pretentious  instruments  are  dis- 
figured. The  public  taste  in  this  respect  is  rapidly  improving. 


300  THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,   1876. 

There  are  some  beautiful  pianos  in  the  English  Department  of  the 
Exhibition — faultless  in  style  and  taste,  though  generally  at  a  price 
beyond  the  ordinary  reach.  But  thfs  expensiveness  is  an  accident, 
and  will  soon  disappear.  When  once  machinery  has  been  con- 
structed for  turning  straight  legs,  straight  legs  will  be  no  more 
costly  than  crooked.  In  the  meanwhile,  we  must  pay  the  penalty  for 
living  in  an  age  of  transition.  After  a  time,  perhaps,  we  shall  not 
regret  even  the  pipe  of  Pan,  "  blinding  sweet  by  the  river,"  or  the 


"  The  Great  Exhibition,  iS?6."\          TWENTY-INCH  Y-LEVEL.  I  The  Main  Building. 

By  W.  &  L.  E.  Gurley. 

flute  of  Apollo  victorious  over  Marsyas.  That  sweet,  easy  melody 
of  an  age  when  performer  and  artificer  were  one,  has  given  place  to 
grand  orchestras  and  full  choruses.  Music  has  a  power  and  a  scope 
undreamed  of  by  the  ancients.  When  we  listen  to  Wagner's  Cen- 
tennial March,  we  feel  that  the  visible  form  and  body  of  so  potent  a 
spirit  as  that  which  resides  in  a  full  orchestra  is  a  matter  of  secondary, 
importance. 

The   superb     Piano,  which    we     illustrate    on     page     297,  was 
manufactured  by  Messrs.  Hallett,  Davis  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  and   is 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


301 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  iSj6."\ 


CANDELABRA. 

By  7  L.  Mott  Iron  Co. 


{The  Main  Building. 


undoubtedly  the  most  elaborately  constructed  instrument  of  its  kind  at 


302 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  Exhibition.    The  case  is  made  of  ebony,  with  an  occasional  inlay- 
ing  of  nar-  work,    the 

£3fc 

rowstripsof  5§r  production 

precious  J^SM^^Im  of      skillful 

woodtogive  op£*8JK  ^SiM  carvers, 

effect  to  the  JOT'    .^M^M^  Much  of  Jt 

ornamen-  UlU|     "'\   ....    *^NJf^f  ^W,  *s     *n    very 

tation.    The  H    Jfc^      1|/  Jk  high    relief; 

reader    will  W  «dl  ^•»^4tVJ%  other     «or- 

nnv^    lllT  •  ggg^lil8»//,/,///JHr  AJj^^S^afe  IV  '  ot 

see  from  our        miif  H  MfflHffilllua*   \fefl          tions,    such 

as  the  birds 
and  urn  on 
the  upper 
portion  and 
the  wreaths 
at  the  base, 
are  worked 


engraving 
how  re- 
markable 
this  orna- 
mentation 
is.  All  of  it 
is  h  a  n  d- 


THE  FAVORED   SCHOLAR 


'  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.  '  j 


STATUETTES. 

By  John  Rogers. 


( The  Main  Building. 


out  in  full ;  while  the  panels,  with  their  wreaths,  scrolls,  medallions 
and  symbolic  figures,  are  elaborated  with  great  fidelity  of  detail. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


3<>3 


It  is  one  of  the  anomalies  of  art  that  the  piano,  which  contains 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  187  >').'' 


STATUETTES. 

By  yohn  Rogers. 


[The  Main  Building. 


the  soul  of  harmony,  is  generally  the  least  harmonious  and  ungraceful 
appearing  object  of  the  modern  drawing-room.     It  is  usually  bow- 


3°4 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


legged  and  veneered,  badly  shaped  and  worse  decorated.  The  old- 
fashioned  spinet  was  decidedly  superior,  as  far  as  looks  go,  to  the 
modern  "  grand."  England  in  her  new  Renaissance  makes  Greek 
and  Elizabethan  drawing-rooms  with  furniture  to  match,  but  she  has 
not  evolved  an  Eastlake  piano,  yet.  We  are  glad,  therefore,  to  claim 
for  an  American  the  honor  of  having  made  a  piano  that  is  harmonious 
both  within  and  without. 

This  piano  placed  in  a  music-room  would  form,  as  its  use  requires 
it   should,  the   central  and   prominent   ornament  of  the  apartment. 


Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


INTERIOR  OF  CHRONOMETER  LOCK. 

By  the  Yale  Lock  Co. 


[The  Afain  Kuilding. 


Then  the  general  design  and  ornamentation  are  of  such  a  character 
that  they  can  be  repeated,  with  proper  modifications,  in  all  the  other 
articles  of  furniture  in  such  a  way  that  each  may  accord  with  the 
others  and  the  tout  ensemble  be  perfect. 

On  page  299  we  engrave  a  Solar  Compass  exhibited  by  Messrs. 
W.  &  L.  E.  Gurley,  of  Troy,  New  York.  The  Solar  Compass  is  an 
instrument  most  ingeniously  contrived  for  readily  determining  a  true 
meridian  or  north  and  south  line,  invented  by  William  A.  Burt,  of 
Michigan,  and  patented  by  him  in  1836.  It  has  since  come  into 
general  use  in  the  surveys  of  the,  United  States  Public  Lands,  the 
principal  lines  of  which  are  required  to  be  run  with  reference  to  the 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


3°5 


true  meridian.     The  invention  having  long  since  become  the  property 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876"} 


THE  MINUTE-MAN 

By  Netu  England  Granite  Co. 


{The  Main  Building 


of  the  public,  Messrs.  Gurley  have  given  their  attention  to  the  manu- 
facture of  these  instruments. 


306 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  Solar  Apparatus  consists  mainly  of  three  arcs  of  circles  by 
which  can  be  set  off  the  latitude  of  a  place,  the  declination  of  the 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


MEMORY. 

By  New  England  Granite  Co. 


[The  Main  Building. 


sun  and  the  hour  of  the  day.  These  arcs,  designated  in  the  engraving 
by  the  letters  a,  b  and  c,  are  therefore  termed  the  latitude,  the  decli- 
nation and  the  hour  arcs,  respectively.  The  Latitude  Arc,  a,  has  its 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


307 


centre  of  motion  in  two  pivots,  one  of  which  is  seen  at  d,  the  other 
is  concealed  in  the  engraving.  It  is  moved  either  up  or  down  within 
a  hollow  arc — seen  in  the  engraving — by  a  tangent  screw  at^j  and  is 
securely  fastened  in  any  position  by  a  clamp-screw.  The  latitude  arc 
is  graduated  to  quarter  degrees  and  reads  by  its  vernier,  ^,  to  single 
minutes;  it  has  a  range  of  about  thirty-five  degrees,  so  as  to  be 
adjustable  to  the  latitude  of  any  place  in  the  United  States. 

The  Declination  Arc,  £,  is  also  graduated  to  quarter  degrees  and 
has  a  range  of  about  twenty-four  degrees.     Its  vernier,  v,  reading  to 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


CARPET. 

By  Bigelo-w  Carpet  Co. 


{The  Main  Building. 


single  minutes,  is  fixed  to  a  movable  arm,  h,  having  its  centre  ot 
motion  in  the  centre  of  the  declination  arc  at  g\  the  arm  is  moved 
over  the  surface  of  the  declination  arc  and  its  vernier  set  to  any 
reading  by  turning  the  head  of  the  tangent-screw,  /£.  It  is  also 
securely  clamped  in  any  position  by  a  screw. 

For  the  Solar  Lenses  and  Lines  at  each  end  of  the  arm,  h,  is  a 
rectangular  block  of  brass,  in  which  is  set  a  small  convex  lens, 
having  its  focus  on  the  surface  of  a  little  silver  plate,  fastened  by 
screws  to  the  inside  of  the  opposite  block.  On  top  of  each  of  the 
rectangular  blocks  is  seen  a  little  sighting-piece,  termed  the  Equa 


3o8  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

torial  Sight,  fastened  to  the  block  by  a  small  milled  head-screw,  so 
as  to  be  detached  at  pleasure.  They  are  used  in  adjusting  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  solar  apparatus. 

The  Hour  Arc,  c,  is  supported  by  the  two  pivots  of  the  latitude 
arc,  already  spoken  of,  and  is  also  connected  with  that  arc  by  a  curved 
arm,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  hour  arc  has  a  range  of  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  degrees,  is  divided  to  half  degrees  and  figured 
in  two  series;  designating  both  the  hours  and  the  degrees,  the  middle 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876 >."J  CARPET.  {The  Main  Building. 

By  Bigclo-w  Carpet  Co. 

division  being  marked  12  and  90  on  either  side  of  the  graduated 
lines. 

The  Polar  Axis  through  the  centre  of  the  hour  arc  passes  a 
hollow  socket,  /,  containing  the  spindle  of  the  declination  arc,  by 
means  of  which  this  arc  can  be  moved  from  side  to  side  over  the 
surface  of  the  hour  arc,  or  turned  completely  round  as  may  be 
required.  The  hour  arc  is  read  by  the  lower  edge  of  the  graduated 
side  of  the  declination  arc.  The  axis  of  the  declination  arc,  or, 
indeed,  the  whole  socket,  />,  is  appropriately  termed  the  polar  axis. 

Besides  the  parts  shown  in  the  engraving  seen  on  page  299, 
there  is  also  an  arm  used  in  the  adjustment  of  the  instrument, 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


309 


but  laid  aside  in  the  box  when  that  is  effected.  These  parts  constitute 
properly  the  solar  apparatus.  Besides  these,  however,  are  seen  the 
needle-box,  ^,with  its  arc  and  tangent-screw,  /,  and  the  spirit-levels, 
for  bringing  the  whole  instrument  to  a  horizontal  position.  The 
Needle-box  has  an  arc  of 
about  thirty-six  degrees  in 
extent,  divided  to  half  degrees, 
and  figured  from  the  centre  or 
zero  mark  on  either  side.  The 
needle,  which  is  made  as  in 
other  instruments,  except  that 
the  arms  are  of  unequal  lengths, 
is  raised  or  lowered  by  a  lever 
shown  in  the  engraving. 
The  needle-box  is  attached, 
by  a  projecting  arm  to  a  tan- 
gent-screw, /,  by  which  it  is 
moved  about  its  centre  and  its 
needle  set  to  any  variation. 
This  variation  is  also  read  off 
by  the  vernier  on  the  end  of 
the  projecting  arm,  reading  to 
single  minutes  a  graduated 
arc,  attached  to  the  plate  of 
the  compass. 

The  Levels  seen  with  the 
solar  apparatus,  have  ground- 
glass  vials  and  are  adjustable  at 
their  ends.  The  edge  of  the 
circular  plate  on  which  the 
solar  work  is  placed,  is  divided  and  figured  at  intervals  often  degrees 
and  numbered,  as  shown,  from  o  to  90  on  each  side  of  the  line  of 
sight.  These  graduations  are  used  in  connection  with  a  little  brass 
pin,  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  plate,  to  obtain  approximate  bearings  of 
lines  which  are  not  important  enough  to  require  a  close  observation. 


AMERICAN  PRINTS. 

American  Print  Works. 


310 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  inside  faces  of  the  sights  are  also  graduated  and  figured  to  indi- 
cate the  amount  of  refraction  to  be  allowed  when  the  sun  is  near  the 
horizon.  The  same  firm  also  exhibit  a  Surveyor's  Transit,  which  we 
engrave  on  page  298,  and  a  Twenty-inch  Y- Leveling  Instrument, 

engraved  on  page  300.  Of 
the  different  varieties  of  the 
leveling  instrument,  that 
termed  the  Y-Level  has  been 
almost  universally  preferred  by 
American  engineers,  on  ac- 
count of  the  facility  of  its  ad- 
justment and  superior  accu- 
racy. 

The  telescope  has  at  each 
end  a  ring  of  bell-metal, 
turned  very  truly  and  both  of 
exactly  the  same  diameter ;  by 
these  it  revolves  in  the  wyes, 
or  can  be  at  pleasure  clamped 
in  any  position  when  the  clips 
of  the  wyes  are  brought  down 
upon  the  rings,  by  pushing  in 
the  tapering  pins.  The  tele- 
scope has  a  rack  and  pinion 
movement  to  both  object-  and 
eye-glasses,  an  adjustment  for 
centering  the  eye-piece,  and 
another  for  ensuring  the  accu- 
rate projection  of  the  object- 
glass,  in  a  straight  line.  Both 
of  these  are  completely  concealed  from  observation  and  disturbance 
by  a  thin  ring  which  slides  over  them.  The  telescope  has  also  a 
shade  over  the  object-glass,  so  made  that  whilst  it  may  be  readily 
moved  on  its  slide  over  the  glass,  it  cannot  be  dropped  off  and  lost- 
The  interior  construction  of  the  telescope  represents  a  longitudinal 


AMERICAN  PRINTS. 

American  Print  Works. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


section  and  exhibits  the  adjustment  which  ensures  the  accurate  pro- 
jection of  the  object-glass  slide.  As  this  is  peculiar  with  Messrs. 
Gurley's  instruments  and  is  always  made  by  the  maker  so  perma- 
nently as  to  need  no  further  attention  at  the  hands  of  the  engineer, 


we  shall  here  describe  the  means  by  which  it  is  effected,  somewhat 
in  detail. 

The  necessity  for  such  an  adjustment  will  appear  when  we  state 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  a  telescope  tube  so  that  it  shall 


312 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


be  perfectly  straight  on  its  interior  surface,  Such  being  the  case,  it 
is  evident  that  the  object-glass  slide,  which  is  fitted  to  this  surface 
and  moves  in  it,  must  partake  of  its  irregularity,  so  that  the  glass 
and  the  line  of  collimation  depending  upon  it,  though  adjusted  in 
one  position  of  the  slide,  will  be  thrown  out  when  the  slide  is  moved 
to  a  different  point.  To  prove  this,  let  any  level  be  selected  which  is 
constructed  in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  line  of  collimation  adjusted 
upon  an  object  taken  as  near  as  the  range  of  the  slide  will  allow; 
then  let  another  be  selected,  as  distant  as  may  be  clearly  seen ;  upon 

this  revolve  the  wires, 
and  they  will  almost 
invariably  be  found 
out  of  adjustment, 
sometimes  to  an 
amount  fatal  to  any 
confidence  in  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  instru- 
ment. The  arrange- 
ment adopted  by  this 
firm  corrects  this 
imperfection  and  per- 
fectly accomplishes  its 
purpose. 

As  seen  in  the  en- 
graving, the  level  telescope  is  furnished  with  the  ordinary  rack  and 
pinion  movement  to  both  object-  and  eye-tubes.  The  advantages  of 
an  eye-piece  pinion  are  that  the  eye-piece  can  be  shifted  without 
danger  of  disturbing  the  telescope,  and  that  the  wires  are  more 
certainly  brought  into  distinct  view,  so  as  to  avoid  effectually  any 
error  of  observation  arising  from  what  is  termed  the  instrumental 
parallax.  The  position  of  the  pinion  on  the  tube  is  varied  in  different 
instruments  according  to  the  'choice  of  the  engineer. 

The  Level  or  ground-bubble  tube  is  attached  to  the  under  side  of 
the  telescope  and  furnished  at  the  different  ends  with  the  usual  move- 
ments, in  both  horizontal  and  vertical  directions.  The  aperture  of 


CARPET. 

Court  of  the  Netherlands. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


French  Court, .]  LACE. 

Maison  Blanc. 


the  tube  is  about  five  and  one- 
fourth  inches  long,  being 
crossed  at  the  centre  by  a 
small  rib  or  bridge,  which 
greatly  strengthens  the  tube. 

The  level  scale,  which  ex- 
tends over  the  whole  length, 
is    graduated    into    spaces    a 
little  coarser  than  tenths  of  an 
inch  and  figured  at  every  fifth 
division,  counting    from   zero 
at   the   centre  of  the  bridge; 
the  scale  is   set  close  to  the 
glass.  The  bubble-vial  is  made 
of  thick  glass  tube,  selected  so 
as  to  have  an  even  bore  from 
end  to  end,  and  finely  ground 
on  its  upper  interior   surface, 
that  the  run  of  the  air-bubble 
may  be   uniform    throughout 
its  whole  range.     The   sensi- 
tiveness of  a   ground-level  is 
determined  best  by  an  instru- 
ment    called     a     level-tester, 
having  at  one  end  two  Y's  to 
hold  the  tube,  and  at.  the  other 
a    micrometer-wheel    divided 
into  hundredths  and  attached 
to  the  top  of  a  fine-threaded 
screw,  which  raises  the  end  of 
the  tester  very  gradually.    The 
number   of    divisions    passed 
over  on  the  perimeter  of  the 
wheel,  in  carrying  the  bubble 
over  a  tenth  of  the  scale,  is 


3*4 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,   1876. 


the  index  of  the  delicacy  of  the  level.     In  the  tester  which  is  used 
a  movement  of  the  wheel  ten  divisions  to  one  of  the  scale  indicates 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


PORCELAIN  VASE. 

Collective  Exhibit  of  Gien. 


[The  Main  Building. 


the  degree  of  delicacy  generally  preferred  for  railroad  engineering. 
For  canal  work  practice,  a  more  sensitive  bubble  is  often  desired,  as 
for  instance,  one  of  seven  or  eight  divisions  of  the  wheel  to  one  of 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


the  scale.     The  exhibit  of  Messrs.  Gurley  is  a  most  interesting  and 
satisfactory  one,  and  we  trust  these  gentlemen  will  gratify  and  instruct 
the  public  by  continuing  their  display  in  the  permanent  exhibition. 
At  the  large  iron  fountain  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Main  Avenue, 

the  Mott  Iron which  is  a  re- 

Company  presentative 

made    a  beau-     •        HP  J^^le^'^ll   piece  °f  work 
tiful    display  from    their 

of  artistic  iron-    I  •  creditable 

work,  from    fm       iy VL.  #» ^Sftifi'-^T  display, 

which   we   en-   'MF  ^&^  ^fflP       Mr.  Rogers, 

whose  fine 
statuettes  are 
now  familiar 


grave,  on  page 
301,  a  cande- 
labra in  bronze 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


DISH  AND  VASES 

By  3f-  ffoury. 


[The  Main  Building. 


throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  exhibited  the  choicest 
specimens  of  his  artistic  work  in  various  buildings  of  the  Exhibition. 
On  pages  302  and  303  we  engrave  several  of  those  always  interesting 
and  pleasing  subjects. 


3i6 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Near  to  the  southeast  corner  of  the  Main  Building,  the  Yale 
Lock  Company  made  a  beautiful  exhibit  of  a  Post  Office,  the  interior 
of  which  was  open  to  visitors.  They  also  exhibited  several  varieties 


of  their  time  or 
chronometer 
locks,  for  safes, 
one  of  which  we 
engrave  on  page 
304,  showing 
the  interior  of 
such  a  lock. 

On  the  ave- 
nue between  the 
Shoe  and  Lea- 
ther Building 
and  Machinery 
Hall,  a  fine  col- 
lection of  statu- 
ary in  granite 
was  exhibited  by 
the  New  Eng- 
land Granite 
Company. 

No  more  ap- 
propriate exhibit 
could  have  been 
made  by  this 
Company  to  our 
Centennial  than 
the  spirited  sta- 
tue, an  engrav- 
ing  of  which 


CANDELABRA. 

By  Susse  freres. 


we  present  to 
our  readers  on 
page  305.  It  is 
a  statue  typify- 
ing the  brave 
company  of  men 
w  ho  banded 
themselves  to- 
gether in  the 
early  days  of  the 
Revolution, 
swearing  to  be 
ready  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice  to 
stop  whatever 
work  they  might 
be  at  and  take 
up  their  arms 
against  the  in- 
vader. It  is  a 
"Minute  Man," 
one  of  those 
brave  fellows 
whom  Pau  1 
Revere,  in  his 
memorable  ride 
of  the  1 8th  of 
April,  1775, 
called  from  the 


fields  and  the  plow,  shouting  to  them  as  he  went  galloping  past,  "  the 
British  are  coming !"  In  a  few  hours,  over  a  hundred  men  of  the 
"  train-band  " — as  it  was  sometimes  called — were  collected  together 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


and  the  next  morning,  under  gallant  Captain  John  Parker,  the  little 
band  stood  drawn  up  in  the  streets  of  Lexington  determined  to  fight 
for  those  liberties  which  were  dearer  to  them  than  life.  Every 


'The  Grtit  Exhibition,  1876."} 


CLOCK. 
By  Suste  /reres. 


[The  Main  Building: 


schoolboy  is  familiar  with  the  events  of  that  day — the  famous  iQth  of 
April — and  the  part  played  by  the  famous  Minute-Men  afterwards. 
But  we  can  appropriately  introduce  here  those  charming  verses 


3'S 


THE   GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


delivered  by  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  on  the  unveiling  of  the  statue 
last  year  on  the  one-hundredth  anniversary  of  the  famous  battle : — 


By  the  rude  bridge  that  arched  the  flood, 
Their  flag  to  April's  breeze  unfurled; 

Here  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood, 
And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world. 

The  foe  long  since  in  silence  slept ; 

Alike  the  conqueror  silent  sleeps ; 
And  time  the  ruined  bridge  has  swept 

Down  the  dark  stream  which  seaward  creeps. 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


On  the  green  bank,  by  this  soft  stream, 
We  set  to-day  a  votive  stone ; 


That  memory  may  their  deed  redeem 
When,  like  our  sires,  our  sons  are  gone. 


320 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Spirit  that  made  those  heroes  dare 

To  die  and  leave  their  children  free, 
Bid  Time  and  Nature  gently  spare 

The  shaft  we  raise  to  them  and  Thee. 

The  statue  itself  needs  but  little  description.     The  reader  can  see 


for  himself  how 
admirably  the 
artist  has  em- 
bodied the  idea. 
The  man  stands 
in  strong,  free 
position,  one 
hand  resting 
upon  the  plow 
he  is  about  leav- 
ing, the  other, 
grasping  the 
musket,  is  ex- 
tended forward, 
and  over  the 
arm  is  thrown 
the  cloak  as  if 
hastily  picked 
up  at  the  sudden 
summons.  The 
face  wears  a  look 
of  determination 
— the  look  of 
one  who  is  ready 


SMELLING-BOTTLE. 

By  E.  Phillipe, 


to  do  and  die  if 
need  b  e — a  n  d 
the  sculptor  has 
given  with  rare 
art  a  loftiness,  a 
look  almost  of 
prophecy  to  the 
expression. 

Our  next  il- 
lustration is  also 
drawn  from  one 
of  the  Fine  Arts, 
which  becomes 
Industrial  only 
by  its  adaptation 
to  machinery 
and  suscepti- 
bility of  repro- 
duction. We  do 
not  expect  from 
any  machine  the 
qualities  of 
imagination  and 
creative  thought 


which  make  a  great  sculptor,  yet  when  the  conception  is  simple,  and 
especially  when  the  shaping  hand  of  the  artificer  is  allowed  to  give 
the  final  touch,  the  result  may  be  a  memorable  one,  to  such  perfection 
have  mechanical  processes  now  arrived.  Our  illustration  represents 
a  more  legitimate  use  of  such  appliances  than  American  chromo- 
lithographs. "  Memory,"  engraved  on  page  306,  is  represented  by  a 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING.  321 

female  figure,  whose  face  indicates  the  time  of  life  between  girlhood 
and  middle  age.  She  is  old  enough  to  have  a  past,  regrets  and  losses, 
happy  and  unhappy  memories ;  but  life  is  still  high  in  her  veins,  and 
the  future  is  still  before  her.  Her  thoughts  now  are  with  the  past. 
She  is  seated  on  a  mass  of  rock,  in  the  attitude  of  remembrance  and 
retrospection.  Her  face  shows  a  softened,  half-regretful  mood ;  her 
eyes  are  downcast  and  half-closed ;  she  has  forgotten  time  and  place. 
The  left  hand,  lying  on  the  lap,  holds  a  chaplet  of  roses.  The  right 
arm  lies  across  the  left.  Notice  the  ease  of  the  position,  and  yet  the 
absorption  indicated  in  every  turn  of  limb.  One  knee  is  raised,  and 
the  foot  supported  upon  a  slab  of  rock ;  the  other  foot  is  upon  a 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}  BROOCHES.  [The  Main  Building. 

By  E. 


lower  stone,  half  slipping  off,  yet  supported  by  the  heel.  The  atti- 
tude and  feeling  of  the  statue  are  difficult  to  render  by  means  of 
Industrial  Art,  and  the  designer  has  achieved  a  remarkably  good 
result. 

On  pages  307  and  308  are  two  specimens  of  carpet  from  the 
Bigelow  Carpet  Manufactory  of  Massachusetts.  They  are  of  the 
quality  known  as  Turkey  ply,  that  peculiar  finish  into  which  the  foot 
sinks  as  into  moss,  and  which  has  a  warmth  and  comfortable  feeling 
suggestive  of  rest  and  repose.  The  patterns  of  the  body  of  these 
carpets  are  unmistakably  oriental,  and  the  border  follows  the  same 
model. 


322 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


We  engrave  on  pages  309  and  310  some  of  the  Print  Patterns 
used  by  the  American  Print  Works,  Fall  River,  Massachusetts,  in 
their  manufacture :  and  as  these  figures  may  fairly  be  taken  to  repre- 
sent the  fashion  of  the  day,  it  is  curious  and  interesting  to  note  how 

disc  —  whose  SEVRES  VASE.  were  covered 

plumage  was  with    great 

sprawlings  in  glaring,  ill  contrasted  colors,  such  as  none  but  a 
savage  of  to-day  would  delight  in.  And  now  we  have  such  patterns 
as  these — neat,  carefully  designed,  with  proper  regard  for  the  color- 
effect,  and  altogether  pleasing  and  attractive  to  the  eye. 

A  useful  annex  to  the  Main  Building  was  situated  between  the 
Art  Gallery  and  the  Department  of  Public  Comfort.  It  was  the 


THE  MAIN  BUILDING. 


323 


Carriage  Building,  but  portion  of  it  given  up  to    domestic  heating 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


HELICON  VASE. 

By  Elkingto*  &  Co. 


\TkeMa%uKuiidinS. 


apparatus.      From  the  exhibit  of  Messrs.  Durham  &  Wooster,  of 
New  Haven,  we  engrave  on  page  3 1 1  a  neatly-made  Brougham. 


324  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

Of  the  principal  national  exhibits  still  to  inspect,  we  have  the 
Netherlands,  Switzerland,  Belgium  and  France ;  but  we  must  at  this 
stage  content  ourselves  by  directing  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the 
beautiful  objects  engraved  on  the  last  twelve  or  thirteen  pages  of  this 
division  of  our  work.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  last  illustration, 
taken  from  the  Main  Building,  is  the  Helicon  Vase,  exhibited  by 
Messrs.  Elkington  &  Co.,  of  Birmingham ;  and  as  this  was  the 
greatest  object  of  Industrial  Art  in  the  Exhibition,  we  appropriate 
this  page  to  a  description  of  that  superb  work. 

The  materials  of  which  the  Helicon  Vase  is  composed  are  oxy- 
dized  silver  and  steel — the  latter  damascened.  The  piece  is  designed 
to  symbolize  the  Apotheosis  of  Music  and  Poetry.  In  form,  the  piece 
may  be  described  as  an  elongated  plateau,  the  surface  sloping 
upwards  to  the  centre,  on  which  rests  the  vase.  The  plateau  is 
enriched  with  sculptured  panels  and  medallions,  and  around  the 
border  is  a  series  of  twelve  bas-reliefs,  of  various  shapes,  illustrative 
of  the  different  kinds  of  Music  and  Poetry.  The  interstices  of  the 
design  are  filled  in  with  scrolls,  masks  and  trophies  of  various  kinds, 
formed  of  beaten  silver,  which  is  thrown  into  relief  by  the  back- 
ground of  dark,  richly  damascened  steel.  Resting  on  the  plateau, 
at  the  foot  of  the  vase,  are  two  half-dressed  female  figures,  symbol- 
izing Music  and  Poetry,  attended  by  youthful  genii. 

On  the  body  of  the  vase,  on  either  side,  is  a  large  medallion 
relief,  in  repousse,  representing  the  nine  Muses,  four  on  one  and  five 
on  the  other.  At  the  bases  of  the  handles  are  escutcheons  bearing 
the  names  of  illustrious  poets  and  composers :  Homer,  Shakespeare, 
Moliere  and  Byron,  on  the  one  side,  and  Handel,  Haydn,  Beethoven 
and  Mozart,  on  the  other. 

The  foregoing  is  but  a  bare  description  of  this  great  work ;  no 
words  can  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  its  fine  workmanship  and 
artistic  designing.  To  state  that  the  art  labor  alone  bestowed  upon 
it  cost  thirty  thousand  dollars  in  gold,  is  but  to  give  the  figures 
representing  the  commercial  value  of  an  expression  of  genius  which 
cannot  be  bought,  but  comes  to  man  as  a  gift. 


PART    III. 


MACHINERY    HALL 


ANNEXES. 


HE  INTERNATIONAL  EXHJBITIO 


MACHINERY    HALL 


entering  into  our  review  of  the  Machinery  and 
Civil  Engineering  of  the  Exhibition,  we  shall  furnish  a 
few  details  of  the  principal  building  in  which  they  are 
placed. 

Machinery  Hall  forms  a  rectangular  parallelogram,  broken  in  the 
centre  of  the  south  side  by  a  square  projection,  which  is  called  the 
Hydraulic  Annex,  on  either  side  of  which  are  the  annexes  of  the 
Shoe  and  Leather  Building,  the  Machine  Shop  for  repairs,  and  the 
Boiler  Houses  of  the  Corliss  Engine,  the  English  boiler  exhibit,  and 
the  American  boiler  exhibit.  To  the  west  of  the  Main  Hall  are  the 
Pavilion  of  Chili,  with  models  of  the  process  of  extracting  silver 
from  its  ores;  the  Glass-works  of  Gillender  &  Son;  the  Spanish 
Pavilion,  with  its  exhibit  of  machinery  and  implements  of  war ;  the 
Canadian  log-house,  and  the  shed  with  machinery  for  sawing  lumber 
and  stone. 

The  Machinery  Hall,  like  the  Main  Building,  in  its  length  runs 
east  and  west,  and  forms  a  continuous  line — interrupted  only  by  Bel- 

327 


MACHINERY  HALL.       .  329 

mont  Avenue— with  that  building.  The  distance  from  the  east  end 
of  the  Main  Building  to  the  west  end  of  Machinery  Hall  is  1278 
yards,  and  the  whole  length  from  east  to  west,  along  the  Avenue  of 
the  Republic,  is  one  mile.  Machinery  Hall  is  1402  feet  long  by  360 
wide,  and  the  Hydraulic  Annex  is  208  by  210  feet;  these  cover  an 
area  of  558,440  square  feet,  or  12.82  acres;  or,  including  the  upper 
floors,  the  building  provides  14  acres  of  floor-space.  The  principal 
portion  of  the  structure  is  one  story  in  height,  showing  the  main 
cornice  upon  the  outside  at  40  feet  from  the  ground,  the  interior 
height  to  the  top  of  the  ventilators  in  the  avenues  being  70  feet,  and 
in  the  aisles  40  feet.  To  break  the  long  lines  upon  the  exterior,  pro- 
jections have  been  introduced  upon  the  four  sides,  and  the  main 
entrances  finished  with  facades,  extending  to  78  feet  in  height  The 
east  entrance  forms  the  principal  approach  from  street-cars,  from  the 
Main  Exhibition  Building,  and  from  the  railroad  depots.  The  west 
entrance  affords  the  most  direct  communication  with  George's  Hill, 
which  point  affords  the  best  view  of  the  entire  Exhibition  grounds. 

The  foundations  consist  of  piers  of  masonry.  The  superstruc- 
ture consists  of  solid  timber  columns  supporting  roof  trusses,  con- 
structed with  straight  wooden  principals  and  wrought  iron  ties  and 
struts.  As  a  general  rule  the  columns  are  placed  lengthwise  of  the 
building,  at  the  uniform  distance  apart  of  16  feet  The  columns  are 
40  feet  high  to  the  heel  block  of  the  90  feet  span  roof  trusses  over 
the  avenues,  and  they  support  the  heel  of  the  60  feet  spans  over  the 
aisles,  at  the  height  of  20  feet.  The  outer  walls  are  built  of  masonry 
to  a  height  of  5  feet,  and  above  "that  are  composed  of  glazed  sash 
placed  between  the  columns.  Portions. of  the  sash  are  movable  for 
ventilation.  Louvre  ventilators  are  introduced  in  continuous  lengths 
over  both  the  avenues  and  the  aisles.  The  building  is  lit  entirely  by 
side  light.  The  annex  for  hydraulic  machines  contains  a  tank  60  feet 
by  1 60  feet,  with  depth  of  water  of  10  feet.  In  connection  with  this 
hydraulic  machinery  is  exhibited  in  full  operation.  At  the  south 
end  of  this  tank  is  a  waterfall  35  feet  high  by  40  feet  wide,  supplied 
from  the  tank  by  the  pumps  upon  exhibition.* 

*  Commissioners'  Report. 


MA  CHINER Y  HALL.  331 


Entering  Machinery  Hall  at  the  southern  door,  we  pass  the  office 
of  that  bundle  of  false  information — the  Official  Catalogue — and  on 
the  right  the  most  destructive  instruments  of  modern  warfare — the 
Krupp  guns.  Continuing  on  this  aisle  we  pass  the  British  exhibit  of 
Mining  Machinery  and  Machinery  of  the  Soil  (exclusive  of  agricul- 
tural machinery),  American  Machine  Tools,  and  English  Machinery 
for  working  in  Iron.  Passing  the  Corliss  exhibit  on  the  right  and  the 
Hydraulic  Annex,  the  most  remarkable  of  the  American  exhibits 
are  the  Drilling  Machinery,  American  manufactures  of  the  Perrin 
ribbon-saw — a  general  collection  of  knick-knacks  of  Machinery — 
until  we  reach  the  western  end,  when  turning,  we  pass  the  principal 
exhibits  of  Turbine  machinery,  sewing-machines,  power-looms,  watch- 
making, models  of  boats,  marine  machinery,  armor-plating,  life-saving 
apparatus,  the  foreign  exhibits  of  Russia,  Canada,  France,  Belgium ; 
the  sugar-mill  from  Glasgow,  Scotland;  and  proceeding  westward 
again  on  the  north  aisle,  we  pass  the  exhibits  of  Germany,  Sweden, 
Brazil ;  printing  machinery  of  all  kinds,  locomotives,  and  the  most 
wonderful  of  all  in  the  Machinery  Hall — perhaps  in  the  whole  Exhi- 
bition— the  Grant  Calculating  Machine  for  the  use  of  mathematicians 
and  astronomers.  Next  we  pass  weighing  and  testing  machines,  and 
find  ourselves  once  more  at  the  western  end,  note-book  well  filled 
with  what  we  have  found  here,  in  the  Main  Building,  United  States 
Government  Building,  and  various  pavilions. 

Mineral  products  have,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  present  Exhi- 
bition, as  in  former  ones,  been  brought  under  Class  I,  which,  however, 
includes  a  number  of  other  objects  in  addition  to  mineral  bodies, 
whether  in  their  natural  state  or  as  prepared  by  the  metallurgical 
processes  for  further  treatment  in  the  arts.  Such  are,  for  example, 
the  models,  drawings  or  the  actual  apparatus  of  mechanical  appli- 
ances used  in  mining. 

It  appears  natural  that  an  Industrial  Exhibition  should  commence 
by  placing  before  the  spectator  the  raw  materials  derived  from  the 
mineral  kingdom,  and  should  lead  him  step  by  step  from  the  simple 
products  of  the  mine  and  the  quarry,  from  the  very  source  in  fact  of 
manufacturing  and  commercial  power,  towards  the  finished  results  of 


332 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  333 


industrial  art  with  which  we  are  more  familiar  in  every-day  life;  and 
if  this  be  needed  to  insure  the  completeness  of  such  an  exhibition,  it 
might  be  argued  that  when  the  display  is  styled  universal,  the  choice 
of  natural  products  should  not  be  limited  to  those  alone  for  which 
mankind  have  already  found  an  application,  but  that  all  the  sub- 
stances offered  to  us  by  a  bountiful  nature  should  receive  their  due 
meed  of  attention,  and  should  contribute,  it  may  be  only  to  general 
instruction,  but  possibly  also,  after  comparison  and  suggestion  and 
trial,  to  new  and  useful  forms  of  service  to  man.  If  any  one  applies 
himself  seriously  to  the  study  of  the  mineral  products  as  exhibited, 
he  will  find  provoking  gaps  and  intervals  and  examples  of  incom- 
pleteness, such  as  could  only  be  obviated  by  the  collection  of  the 
larger  groups  of  specimens  being  placed  under  the  direction  of  a 
master  mind.  But  there  is  a  great  deal  besides  this  to  be  taken  into 
account,  and  in  which  Class  I  differs  toto  ccelo  from  those  classes 
which  offer  to  the  eye  of  the  visitor  the  products  of  art  in  a  state  of 
complete  finish.  A  large  proportion  of  the  specimens  constituting 
this  division — as,  for  instance,  the  coals,  the  ironstones,  and  many  of 
the  ores — require  a  previous  education  to  enable  the  visitor  to  dis- 
cover their  interest,  and  are  not  likely  to  enlist  the  close  attention  of 
the  million,  wearied  with  the  multitude  of  sights  and  blase,  with  the 
brilliancy  of  porcelain  and  silver,  silks  and  gilding.  Hence  arises  a 
feeling  that  such  collections  will  interest  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
public.  And  coupled  with  this  is  the  question  whether  any  pecuniary 
advantage  is  secured  to  the  exhibitor  by  a  display  ©f  his  raw  produce. 
In  some  instances  the  place  held  in  the  Exhibition  may  serve  as  a 
useful  advertisement;  but  in  many  others  there  is  such  a  total 
absence  of  money  remuneration  that  we  can  hardly  wonder  that 
many  producers  hang  back,  and  we  may  be  the  more  grateful  to  those 
wfyo  have  incurred  an  expense,  sometimes  very  considerable,  to  send 
up  suites  of  their  copper  ores,  black-bands,  limestones,  etc.,  and  to 
accompany 'them  by  drawings  and  sections,  in  order  to  contribute  to 
the  general  scientific  usefulness  of  the  undertaking.  But  more  than 
this,  if  previous  knowledge  is  required  in  order  to  invest  the  speci- 
mens with  their  due  share  of  interest,  much  more  is  it  needed  if  we 


334 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


O   ^ 
<•> 


MACHINERY  HALL.  335 


would  judge  of  the  commercial  value  and  importance  of  the  works 
which  they  represent.  The  prosperous  working  of  a  mine,  the  suc- 
cessful treatment  of  an  ore,  depend  on  such  a  multitude  of  collateral 
circumstances,  that  a  mere  example  or  two,  in  most  cases  carefully 
selected  as  the  most  showy  that  can  be  obtained,  cannot  possibly 
serve  as  an  index  to  the  true  state  or  prospects  of  the  work  from 
which  they  are  taken,  unless  we  are  made  acquainted  by  previous 
experience,  or  by  detailed  description,  with  the  conditions  under 
which  such  examples  occur. 

It  appears  to  us  that  under  this  latter  point  of  view  the  system 
adopted  in  the  preparation  of  the  Official  Catalogue  is  highly  objec- 
tionable. Therein  we  see  that  most  of  the  exhibitors  simply  state 
the  nature  of  the  objects  exhibited  by  them,  and  generally  in  so  few 
words,  being  enjoined  by  authority  so  to  do,  as  to  be  obscure  or  far 
short  of  the  required  mark  in  explanation.  But  when  we  turn  to 
others,  we  are  surprised  to  find,  after  the  first  simple  statement,  a 
long  panegyric  upon  the  articles  exhibited,  often  coupled  with  asser- 
tions of  much  importance  if  true,  which  would  appear  to  the  public 
to  be  issued  under  the  authority  of  the  Commissioners,  but  which, 
we  regret  to  learn,  are  nothing  else  than  paid  advertisements.  It  thus 
becomes  the  more  needful  that  exhibition  records  and  jury  reports 
should  be  published  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible,  in  order  to  coun- 
teract, were  there  no  other  reason  for  it,  the  erroneous  impressions 
which  may  in  some  instances  be  produced  by  the  desire  of  exhibitors 
to  puff  their  wares,  and  of  Commissioners  to  make  their  catalogue  pay. 

There  are  two  general  methods  employed  for  the  reduction  of  the 
metal  copper  from  its  ores — one  the  old  system  of  repeated  fusions, 
or  the  smelting  process,  always  used  in  the  case  of  rfch  ores,  and  the 
other  designated  the  wet  process,  by  which  the  material  containing 
the  metal  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  solvent  which  dissolves  the 
copper  out,  leaving  the  other  ingredients  behind  as  a  residue.  This 
wet  process  has  been  very  extensively  used  in  the  extraction  of 
copper  from  lean  or  poor  ores,  which  could  not  be  profitably  worked 
by  the  old  method.  Rich  ores  are  easily  smelted,  and  the  proportion 
of  fuel  used  compared  with  the  metal  obtained  is  small ;  but  as  the 


336 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


percentage  of  copper  decreases,  the  difficulty  of  separation  increases, 
*and  the  amount  of  fuel  required  becomes  greater,  making  the  opera- 
tion too  expensive  for  practical  use.  With  the  wet  process, 
however,  only  one  furnace  operation  is  generally  required,  and  but 


m 


—  SKtonen.  AJ3.CJI.— 


Jfront  rieir 

—  Caltinin-y  Furnace . 


\ 


G 


PROCESS  FOR  THE  REDUCTION  OF  COPPER  FROM  ITS  ORES. 

By  Hunt  &  Douglas. 

little  fuel.  To  reduce  a  ton  of  copper  from  a  five  per  cent,  ore 
by  the  smelting  process  would  consume  about  fifteen  tons  of  coal, 
while  only  three  tons  would  be  necessary  in  obtaining  the  same 
amount  by  the  wet  process.  There  are,  however,  expenses  in  the 
latter  method  which  do  not  obtain  in  the  former,  the  principal  one 
being  the  precipitant  necessary  to  throw  down  the  copper  from  its 


MA CHINERY  HALL.  337 

solution.  The  amount  of  this  varies  directly  with  the  amount  of 
copper  obtained;  and  while  its  use  as  compared  with  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel  by  the  other  process  makes  the  wet  method  the 
most  economical  for  a  low-grade  ore,  it  does  not  do  so  for  a  rich 
ore.  The  manner  of  procedure  must  therefore  vary  with  the  kind 
of  ore  available. 

The  precipitant  usually  employed  in  the  wet  process  is  metallic 
iron,  depositing  the  copper  in  a  pure  state,  and  it  depends  on  the 
form  in  which  the  copper  exists  in  solution  how  much  iron  is  required. 
With  the  proto-salts  one  ton  of  copper  will  require  nearly  a  ton  of 
iron,  the  atomic  weight  of  the  latter  being  a  little  less  than  the  for- 
mer,  while  with  the  sub-salts  less  than  half  a  ton  will  be  necessary. 

In  England  copper  is  reduced  from  some  six  hundred  thousand 
tons  of  Spanish  pyrites  annually,  most  of  the  sulphur  having 
been  first  extracted  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  by 
roasting  the  already  partially  roasted  ore  with  salt.  By  this  means 
the  copper  is  converted  into  proto-chloride,  becoming  soluble  in 
water;  and  to  render  the  process  still  more  certain,  the  water  is 
acidulated  with  muriatic  acid,  which  at  the  English  extraction 
works  is  almost  a  waste  product.  The  solution  is  then  brought 
into  contact  with  the  metallic  iron,  which  precipitates  the  copper, 
and  the  liquid,  containing  chloride  of  iron,  is  thrown  away.  At 
some  works  in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  where  acid  is  a 
waste  product  and  carbonates  of  copper  are  available,  the  copper 
is  extracted  simply  by  acids.  Both  these  methods  are  exceedingly 
effective,  but  are  applicable  only  where  salt  and  acids  are  very 
cheap,  which  is  nowhere  the  case  in  this  country. 

In  order  to  utilize  a  secondary  product  of  sulphuric  acid 
manufacture,  Mr.  Monnier  patented  in  the  United  States,  some  years 
ago,  a  process  .which  consisted  in  sulphatizing,  and  thus  rendering 
soluble  in  water,  the  copper  in  sulphuretted  ore,  by  roasting  with 
sulphate  of  soda,  and  he  obtained,  when  his  method  was  worked 
with  skill,  very  satisfactory  results.  The  limited  supply  of  the 
reagent,  however,  and  its  cost  elsewhere  than  at  the  chemical 
works,  interfered  with  the  general  adoption  of  the  process. 


33S 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Copper  is  very  generally  distributed,  almost  every  one  of  the 
United  States  claiming  copper-mines,  but  the  ores  are  seldom 
abundant  enough  in  one  place  to  justify  the  erection  of  works  at 
the  mines,  or  sufficiently  rich  to  bear  transportation  to  a  market. 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.' 


HAMMER. 

By  Ferris  &•  Milts 


{Machinery  Hall. 


Displays  are  contributed  to  the  Exhibition  from  quite  a  number 
of-  localities,  both  of  ores  and  furnace  products.  The  Chemical 
Copper  Company,  of  Phcenixville,  Pennsylvania,  exhibits  in  the 
Government  Building  a  series  of  specimens  illustrative  of  a  wet 


MACHINERY  HALL.  339 

method  called  the  Hunt  &  Douglas  Process,  showing  the  ores 
treated,  the  different  steps  of  the  method  employed,  and  the 
marketable  product  obtained.  In  the  exhibit  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  in  the  west  gallery  of  the  Main  Exhi- 
bition Building,  is  shown  a  drawing  of  the  works,  from  which  we 
have  taken  our  engraving  on  pages  334  and  336.  Messrs.  Hunt 
&  Douglas  claim  as  the  chief  merit  of  their  process,  the  use,  as 
an  efficient  solvent,  of  the  waste  liquors  containing  chloride  of 
iron  which  are  run  off  as  worthless  after  the  precipitation  of  the 
copper  in  the  salt  and  acid  methods.  They  find  that  a  solution 
of  chloride  of  iron,  when  used  in  connection  with  a  strong  brine, 
dissolves  readily  the  copper  from  either,  naturally  or  artificially, 
oxidized  ores.  They  therefore  make  such  a  solution  by  dissolving, 
in  the  proper  proportions,  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  and  salt,  or 
in  any  other  convenient  way,  and  in  this  solution,  heated  to  about 
150°  Fahr.,  they  digest  the  ore,  which  if  massive  must  first  be 
ground  to  such  fineness  that  its  copper  contents  will  be  exposed. 
If  the  ore  is  already  oxidized  by  nature,  and  consists  of  a  native 
carbonate  or  oxide,  or  a  silicate  like  chrysocolla,  it  will  yield  up 
its  copper  to  the  solvent  without  other  treatment;  but  if  the 
copper  be  combined  with  sulphur,  it  must  first  be  roasted  to  drive 
off  the  sulphur  and  oxidize  the  metal. 

Ores  that  are  very  slimy,  and  form  mud  on  settling,  must  be 
agitated  with  the  chloride  of  iron  solution  in  vats  provided  with 
a  stirring  apparatus,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  while  if  the  ores 
be  coarse  and  gritty,  they  may  be  laid  a  foot  or  more  in  depth 
on  the  false  bottom  of  a  leach-tub,  and  the  solvent  solution  be 
allowed  to  filter  slowly  through  them.  This  method  by  filtration 
is  slower  but  quite  as  thorough  as  by  agitation.  The  chloride  of 
iron  in  passing  through  the  ore  reacts  with  the  oxide  of  copper, 
and  there  results  an  insoluble  peroxide  of  iron  and  a  mixture  of 
soluble  chloride  and  dichloride  of  copper  which  flows  into  the 
precipitating  tanks,  where  it  comes  into  contact  with  metallic  iron, 
and  the  copper  is  thrown  down  in  crystalline  metallic  grains. 
The  liquor  becomes  recharged  with  chloride  of  iron,  and  ready 


340  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


therefore  to  be  pumped  back    into  a  storage  tank   and    heated  so 


SINGLE  HAMMER. 

Ferris  &•  Miles. 


that   it  may  be  used  over  again    and  passed   through    the  ore    to 
dissolve  a  fresh  charge  of  copper.     The  solvent  is  thus  constantly 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  341 


regenerated,  and  the  same  liquor  circulates  indefinitely,  alternately 
charged  with  chloride  of  copper  and  with  chloride  of  iron.  The 
only  reagents  used  are  a  little  salt,  which  must  be  added  from 
time  to  time  to  supply  inevitable  loss,  and  the  iron  consumed  in 
precipitation.  This  item,  however,  is  less  than  in  the  ordinary 
methods,  as  about  two-thirds  of  the  copper  is  dissolved  as  a  dichloride 
(that  which  is  kept  in  solution  by  the  brine),  and  therefore  only 
from  sixty  to  seventy-five  parts  of  iron  are  consumed  in  yielding 
one  hundred  parts  of  copper. 

Messrs.  Hunt  &  Douglas  do  not  claim  that  the  neutral  solution 
as  used  will  dissolve  the  copper  as  thoroughly  as  acids  would; 
but  if  the  ore  be  suitable  and  at  all  skillfully  treated,  the  residue 
from  a  four  per  cent,  ore  will  not  retain  over  one-half  per  cent,  of 
copper. 

In  the  exhibits  of  the  Chemical  Copper  Company  may  be 
seen  some  remarkably  perfect  and  large  crystals  of  metallic  capper 
obtained  by  slow  precipitation,  and  the  ingots  made  from  the 
cement  by  a  single  fusion.  This  method  of  reduction  is  also 
employed  at  the  Ore  Knob  Copper  Mine  in  North  Carolina,  and 
for  the  extraction  of  silver  and  copper  at  the  Stewart  Works, 
Georgetown,  Colorado. 

Messrs.  Ferris  &  Miles,  of  Philadelphia,  exhibit  a  large  variety 
of  steam  hammers,  one  of  which,  known  as  the  Double  Frame 
Steam  Hammer  with  Parallel  Ram,  is  shown  by  the  engraving  on 
Page  338-  This  hammer  follows  very  closely  in  general  arrange- 
ments the  well-known  steam  hammers  as  introduced  by  James 
Nasmyth,  of  England,  and  consists  of  a  steam  cylinder  mounted 
upon  two  frames,  which  form  convenient  guides  for  the  hammer 
ram  playing  between  them.  The  piston-rod  connects  the  hammer 
ram  with  the  piston,  and  operates  it  directly  by  the  steam  pressure 
in  the  cylinder.  The  ram  in  the  present  case  is  set  parallel  with 
the  frames,  although  Messrs.  Ferris  &  Miles,  under  one  of  their 
patents,  frequently  set  the  ram  diagonally,  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  the  operator  to  utilize  the  whole  extent  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  ram  for  die  surface,  and  for  placing  this  surface  in  proper 


342 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


direction  for  convenient  working.     To  afford  additional  stiffness  to 
the   frames,   which   are   box-castings,   flanges   are   placed    on  their 


exterior    edges,    and    the    ram    is  made    rather   thicker   than   the 
frames,   projecting   slightly   on   each   side,   so   as   to   give   a    neat 


MACHINERY  HALL.  343 

appearance  and  allow  the  workman  to  readily  see  every  motion 
it  makes. 

The  main  steam  valv.e  is  a  cast-iron  hollow  cylinder  with 
enlarged  ends,  which  work  in  cylindrical  seats,  where  are  situated 
the  steam  ports.  The  steam  supply  enters  the  valve  chamber 
between  the  valve  seats,  circulating  freely  around  the  valve;  and 
the  exhaust  chamber,  fitted  with  proper  drain  and  exhaust  pipes, 
lies  below  the  floor  of  the  cylinder,  allowing  any  condensation 
which  may  occur  to  drain  into  it.  The  exhaust  steam  from  above 
the  piston  passes  down  into  this  chamber  through  the  hollow 
cylindrical  main  valve.  The  valve  stem  making  its  connection  with 
the  valve  in  this  exhaust  chamber,  has  only  atmospheric  pressure 
on  it,  and  requires  no  stuffing-box.  This  method  of  connection 
also  prevents  any  disturbance  of  the  perfect  balance  of  the  valve, 
as  would  be  the  case  if  attached  on  the  steam  side,  and  reduces 
the  amount  of  power  required  to  work  the  valve,  as  well  as  the 
friction  of  the  parts,  to  a  minimum. 

Motion  is  given  to  the  valve  automatically  by  means  of  an 
inclined  plane  on  the  ram,  which  operates  a  cam,  rocker  or  bell 
crank,  connected  by  a  link  to  the  valve  stem,  and  a  hand  lever 
pivoted  on  tc  this  rocker  places  the  whole  apparatus  directly  under 
the  control  of  the  operator.  The  mechanism  is  characterized  by 
extreme  simplicity,  consisting  of  only  three  pieces,  and  yet  by  means 
of  it  every  possible  gradation  of  stroke  can  be  given,  continuous  or 
intermittent,  light  or  heavy,  dead  or  elastic,  long  or  short,  fast  or 
slow,  with  as  much  ease  and  certainty  as  if  the  enormous  machine, 
sometimes  as  much  as  ten  tons  in  weight,  and  having  a  stroke  of 
eight  feet,  were  a  mere  tack-hammer  in  the  hands  of  the  operator. 

Spring  buffers  below  the  cylinder  protect  it  from  injury,  and  by 
removing  these  the  piston  packing  can  be  examined  or  replaced  in 
a  short  time  without  disconnecting  any  of  the  other  parts.  Stuffingr 
boxes  are  provided  at  the  connections  of  steam  and  exhaust  pipes 
to  prevent  leakage  from  vibration  due  to  action  of  hammer. 

Drop-treadles,  worked  by  the  hammer-man's  foot,  are  frequently 
fitted  to  the  smaller  sizes  of  hammers,  which  generally  have  only 


344 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


single  frames,  and  they  work  exceedingly  well,  stopping  and  starting 
the  hammer  "on  the  blow,"  the  ram  always  stopping  "up,"  ready 
to  strike  again.  The  guides  are  made  adjustable,  so  that  any  wear 
can  easily  be  taken  up  and*  the  dies  kept  in  accurate  position  for 
stamping  work  into  moulds.  Much  thought  has  been  bestowed  by 
the  makers  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  anvil  and  foundation,  so 


The  Great  Exhibition,  1876.  '\ 


SLOTTING  MACHINE. 

By  Ferris  &•  Miles. 


[Machinery  Hall. 


as  to  provide  the  most  perfect   attainable  base   for  the  machine  at 
the  least  possible  expense  consistant  with  the  requirements. 

We  also  engrave  on  pages  340,  342,  and  344,  a  Single  Frame  Steam 
Hammer,  a  Slide  Lathe,  and  an  improved  Slotting  Machine  exhibited 
by  the  same  firm.  Every  device  tending  to  cheapen  production  ought 
to  be  hailed  not  only  by  manufacturers,  but  by  intelligent  workmen 
as  well,  because  such  tools  constitute  the  very  agency  whereby  high 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  345 

wages  can  be  maintained,  and  that  nation  which,  never  standing 
still,  takes  the  lead  in  the  perpetual  introduction  of  this  class  of 
machinery,  will  be  most  likely  to  command  the  outlying  markets 
of  the  world,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  is  to  the  honored 
names  of  our  own  countrymen,  both  of  the  past  and  the  present, 
that  the  world  is  so  largely  indebted  for  the  designs  of  many  of  its 
best  tools  and  machinery  (a  fact  which  is  fully  acknowledged  by 
all  who  are  acquainted  with  the  past  history  of  such  mechanism), 
yet  we  must  not  forget  that  mankind  generally  do  not  know, 
neither  do  they  care  much  for  the  source  of  these  contrivances ; 
they  are  oftener  guided  by  other  considerations,  chiefly  those  of  a 
commercial  nature,  and  in  the  present  condition  of  the  world's 
progress  our  country  would  throw  a  grand  chance  away  were  its 
display  at  this  Exhibition  not  upheld  by  the  best  specimens  of  her 
numerous  branches  of  machine-making  and  other  manufactures. 

A  firm  which  has  done  much  to  uphold  the  credit  of  American 
machine  tools  among  foreign  nations  is  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co.,  of 
Philadelphia.  This  firm  made  creditable  displays  at  the  Exhibi- 
tions of  Paris,  1867,  and  of  Vienna,  1873,  obtaining  at  the  latter 
place  a  diploma.  One  of  their  greatest  novelties  exhibited  at 
Vienna,  and  also  exhibited  at  the  Philadelphia  International  Ex- 
hibition is  a  small  machine  or  implement  for  sharpening  drills, 
which  we  engrave  on  page  346.  This  operation  is  usually  accom- 
plished in  workshops  by  the  workman  holding  the  end  of  the 
drill  against  the  side  or  periphery  of  a  grinding  stone  at  the  proper 
angle,  the  correctness  of  the  operation  depending  entirely  upon 
the  man  who  manipulates  the  drill,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
comparatively  few  drills  run  correctly  when  inserted  in  the  drill 
spindle,  being  generally  found  to  wabble  at  the  centre  point  more 
or  less,  hence  unless  great  care  is  employed,  there  is  no  certainty 
of  precision  on  the  hole  to  be  drilled  either  as  to  position  or 
dimensions,  but  in  Sellers'  drill  sharpening  machine,  the  drill  fits 
into  a  socket  of  the  same  shape  as  the  machine  spindle,  which 
is  placed  in  relation  to  the  emery  wheel  at  the  proper  angle,  and 
then  passes  under  the  revolving  emery,  first  upon  one  side  and 


346  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

then  upon  the  other,  and  thus  the  drill  is  made  perfectly  correct  for  its 
purpose.  The  introduction  of  the  emery  wheel  instead  of  the  stone, 
combined  with  the  mechanism,  is  a  great  improvement.  This  system 
of  grinding  was  introduced  into  England  from  the  United  States  in  1 854, 
and  has  been  extensively  employed  for  sharpening  circular  cutters. 

Their  lathes  are  almost  perfect,  the  spindle  seems  to  float  on  a 
fluid,  yet  it  is  perfectly  steady,  and  in  working  has  not  any  of  the 
jerking  feeling  that  is  usually  to  be  found  in  the  second  class 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}         DRILL  GRINDING   MACHINE.  {Machinery  Hall. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &•  Co. 

lathes.  The  self-acting  motion  is  obtained  from  the  main  gearing 
by  means  of  a  disk  working  between  two  disks  on  another  spindle, 
but  both  on  the  same  axis,  hence  as  the  intermediate  disks  is 
nearer  to  or  farther  from  the  centre  of  motion  so  is  the  rate  of 
motion  that  it  receives.  It  is  impossible  to  resist  the  conclusion 
that  Messrs.  Sellers  are  the  most  speculative  tool  makers  in  the 
Exhibition,  and  everything  that  they  show  is  almost  above  criti- 
cism ;  their  bolt  screwing  machine  is  now  so  well  known  that 


MA  CHINER  Y  HA LL.  347 

scarcely  any  word  of  praise  or  even  description  is  required,  but 
still  those  shown  are  marvels  of  excellence,  the  fitting  of  the  dies 
perfection,  yet  withal  so  plain  and  simple,  so  free  from  every 
attempt  at  ornament,  and  yet  so  harmonious  in  repose  and  in  the 
full  assurance  of  fitness  for  their  purpose.  Their  slotting  machine 
is  somewhat  peculiar,  inasmuch  as  the  sliding  bar  does  not  slide 
in  the  frame  as  is  usual,  but  works  in  an  intermediate  slide  rest, 
thus  giving  facility  either  to  lower  or  raise  the  intermediate  frame 
to  suit  the  ,work,  in  order  to  have  the  sliding  bar  which  carries 
the  instrument  under  equally  good  conditions  at  all  times  and 
thus  give  extra  steadiness.  A  trifling  feature  in  their  tools  is, 
that  the  sliding  bars  of  their  countershaft  arrangements  are  made 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}  SLIDE    LATHE.  [Machinery  Hall. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co. 

of  wood,  they  seem  to   answer  the   purpose    as  well  as  iron,  and 
are  of  course  both  cheaper  and  lighter  to  manipulate. 

Their  Planing  Machine  differs  essentially  from  ordinary  planers, 
possessing  peculiarities  that  impress  the  beholder  at  once  with  the 
amount  of  master-thought  that  has  been  expended  upon  its 
design.  Attention  is  first  attracted  to  the  method  by  which  motion 
is  given  to  the  table  holding  the  object  to  be  planed.  A  special 
form  of  spiral  pinion  being  used,  placed  upon  a  driving-shaft  which 
crosses  the  bed  diagonally,  passing  out  in  the  rear  of  the  upright 
on  the  side  next  to  the  operator  and  connecting  with  the  pulley- 
shaft  by  means  of  a  bevel-wheel  and  pinion.  The  location  of  this 
pulley-shaft,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  engravings,  brings  the 
driving-belts  within  easy  reach  of  the  workman,  and  the  fact  of 
its  axis  being  parallel  to  the  line  of  motion  of  the  table  permits 


348 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  machine  to  be  placed  side  by  side  with  lathes,  thus  econo- 
mizing space  in  the  shop.  There  are  four  teeth  on  the  pinion, 
arranged  like  the  threads  of  a  coarse  screw  of  steep  pitch,  and 
working  into  a  rack  on  the  table,  the  teeth  of  which  are  straight 
and  are  placed  at  an  angle  of  five  degrees  to  its  line  of  motion, 
to  counterbalance  any  tendency  of  the  pinion  to  move  the  table 
sideways. 

We  understand  that  this  arrangement  for  moving  the  table  has 


BOLT  AND  NUT  SCREWING  MACHINE. 
By  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co. 

been  found  to  be  very  durable,  the  operation  of  the  teeth  being 
more  of  a  rolling  action  than  a  rubbing  or  sliding  one.  A  strong 
box-shaped  connection  between  the  sides  of  the  bed,  just  at  the 
uprights,  holds  them  very  firmly  together,  an  advantage  not 
attainable  in  most  other  forms  of  planers  where  the  methods 
adopted  for  giving  motion  to  the  table  do  not  allow  the  required 
space.  The  plan  of  diagonal  shaft  adopted  has  another  superiority 
in  throwing  the  bevel-wheel  and  pinion  driving  it,  out  from  under 


MA  CHINE jR  Y  HALL.  349 

the  table  and  allowing  the  former  to  be  made  of  any  necessary 
size  compared  to  the  latter  as  may  be  required  to  give  the  requisite 
reduction  in  speed  and  transmission  of  power  from  a  high-speed 
belt  without  the  interposition  of  other  gearing,  whereas,  in  the 
ordinary  screw-planer,  the  projection  of  the  table  over  the  ends  of 
the  bed  limits  the  size  of  the  gearing  at  the  end  of  the  screw. 
The  method  adopted  for  shifting  the  belts  constitutes  another 
novelty.  An  arm  rises  from  the  rear  bearing  of  the  pulley-shaft 
extending  over  the  pulleys  and  supporting  three  fulcrum-pins.  On 
the  centre  one  is  a  peculiarly  shaped  lever,  swinging  horizontally 
between  the  other  two  upon  which  are  placed  the  two  belt-shifters. 
The  shifters  are  operated  from  the  middle  lever  by  teeth  or  projec- 
tions on  each,  the  arrangement  being  such  that  one  shifter  is  always 
moved  before  the  motion  of  the  other  is  commenced,  one  belt  always 
leaving  the  driving-pulley  before  the  other  begins  to  take  hold  and 
reverse  the  motion,  requiring  but  little  power,  allowing  the  least 
possible  lateral  motion  of  the  belts  and  avoiding  all  undue  straining 
and  shrieking.  The  usual  adjustable  stops  are  provided  on  the 
sides  of  the  table,  operating  the  belt-shifting  apparatus  by  means 
of  a  double-armed  lever  and  link  connection.  The  position  of 
this  apparatus  is  exceedingly  convenient  for  the  workman  if  he 
desires  to  change  the  belts  without  reference  to  the  stops,  allow- 
ing him  to  easily  control  and  reverse  the  motion  of  the  table  by 
hand  or  even  to  stop  it  entirely  by  shifting  both  belts  on  to  the 
loose  pulleys  without  arresting  the  motion  of  the  counter-shaft. 
This  is  a  great  advantage  at  times  when  planing  surfaces  of 
irregular  shape. 

The  machine  has  positive  geared  feeds,  self-acting  in  all  direc- 
tions with  tool-lifter  operating  at  all  angles.  The  feed  motion  of 
the  cutting-tool  is  obtained  in  nearly  all  planing-machines  from  the 
belt-shifter,  entailing  upon  the  stops  on  the  table  an  undue  amount 
of  work  and  really  resulting  in  quite  limited  variations  of  feed. 
The  usual  screw  and  central  feed  shafts  are  provided  in  this 
machine  in  the  cross-head  for  horizontal  or  vertical  motion, 
receiving  the  variable  motion  for  any  required  amount  of  feed 


350  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

through  a  rachet-wheel  fitted  interchangeably  to  their  squared  end 
projections.  This  rachet-wheel  is  operated  by  a  toothed  segment, 
which  receives  at  each  end  of  the  stroke  of  the  tool  the  required 
alternate  movements  in  opposite  directions  by  means  of  a  light 
vertical  feed-rod  from  a  crank-disk  below,  on  which  the  crank-pin 
is  so  arranged  as  to  allow  any  variation  and  adjustment  of  throw 
and  amount  of  feed  that  may  be  desired  to  be  made  during  the 
cutting  stroke  of  the  machine.  The  crank-plate  is  alternately 
moved  a  half  revolution  and  disengaged  in  either  direction  at  each 


xhibition,  i W\  SLOTTING  MACHINE.  {Machinery  Hall. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co. 

reversion  of  the  stroke  of  the  tool  by  means  of  an  ingeniously 
contrived  double  pawl  and  ratchet-wheel,  receiving  motion  from  a 
pinion  on  the  front  end  of  the  pulley-shaft.  At  each  change  of 
motion  the  pawl  is  thrown  into  gear  by  friction,  keeping  up  a 
positive  motion  of  the  crank-disk  by  the  ratchet-wheel  until  the 
pawl  is  disengaged  from  its  teeth  by  a  positive  stop. 

Messrs.  Sellers'  method  of  lifting  the  tool-point  on  back  motion 
in  this  machine  merits  attention  as  another  improvement  on  the 
usual  plan,  which,  in  most  planing-machines  consists  in  hanging  the 


MA  CHINE  R  Y  HALL. 


cutting-tool  in  what  is  called  an  apron,  so  adjusted  as  to  allow  it 
to  swing  loose  on  the  back  stroke,  but  to  be  held  rigidly  when 
cutting.  This  arrangement  is  very  objectionable  in  all  fine  planing, 
and  especially  in  large  planers  'where  the  tool  is  quite  heavy. 
Various  ideas  have  been  put  into  practice  for  actually  lifting  the 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  SLOTTING  MACHINE. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co. 

tool-point  clear  of  the  work  on  the  back  stroke  and  dropping  it 
into  place  again  ready  for  action  on  the  return,  but  the  method 
here  shown  possesses  especial  ingenuity,  lifting  the  tool  in  every 
position  of  the  side-rest,  and  doing  so  from  within  the  cross-head 
without  interfering  in  any  way  with  the  automatic  feed  motion,  the 
machinery  for  working  the  feeds  occupying  the  centre  about  which 
the  adjustable  part  of  the  saddle  rotates.  This  lifting  apparatus  is 


352  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

operated  by  a  cord  attached  to  a  grooved  segment  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  crank-plate  of  the  feed  motion  by  a  link,  a  recipro- 
cating motion  being  imparted  to  the  cord  corresponding  with  the 
motions  of  the  table,  and  occurring  only  at  the  end  of  each  table 
movement,  beginning  with  the  reversion  of  each  stroke.  The  cord 
is  guided  over  sheaves  at  the  ends  of  the  cross-head  and  passes 
around  a  cord-wheel  in  the  saddle,  having  at  its  other  end  a  weight 
to  keep  it  in  tension.  The  cord-wheel,  by  means  of  a  pinion  at 
the  other  end  of  its  shaft,  operates  on  a  light  annular  plate-wheel 


- Tlu  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}  PLANING  MACHINE.  {Machinery  Hall. 

By  Win.  Sellers  &•  Co. 

recessed  into  the  saddle,  around  the  central  part  containing  the 
small  feed  bevels.  In  a  spiral  groove  on  the  face  of  this  plate- 
wheel  slides  a  block  which  is  attached  to  the  end  of  a  pipe  sur- 
rounding the  vertical  feed-screw,  and  extending  upward  through  the 
casting,  with  a  pair  of  elastic  clamps  at  its  upper  end.  These 
clamps  operate  by  friction  on  a  flat  rod  which  passes  the  whole 
length  of  the  vertical  slide^  on  its  side  next  to  the  saddle,  and  has 
at  its  lower  end,  which  is  thickened  up,  a  hole.  Tne  long  arm  of  a 
bell-crank  lever  fits  loosely  into  this  hole,  and  the  short  arm  extends 


MA  CfflNEJt  Y  HALL. 


353 


down    directly  behind   the  tool-apron.      The    action    of    the   cord 


imparts  motion  to  this  bell-crank  and  affects  the  tool  apron,  pushing 


354 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


it  forward  and  letting  it  fall  back  again  into  place  as  required. 
The  action  is  perfect  and  beautiful,  without  interference  with  any 
of  the  functions  of  the  machine  in  the  least.  When  the  vertical 
slide  is  turned  into  any  new  position  upon  the  horizontal  axis  of 


SECTION  OF  PLANING  MACHINE. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &•  Co. 


the  saddle,  the  pin  in  the  spiral  slot  drags  the  plate-wheel  around, 
the  cord-wheel  slipping  within  its  encircling  cord,  and  as  soon  as 
the  machine  is  started  adjustment  to  the  new  position  takes  place 
at  once  among  the  parts,  the  lifting  apparatus  operating  as  before. 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


355 


Among  the  motors  exhibited  in  the  Machinery  Hall,  Langen 
&  Otto's  Patent  Atmospheric  Gas  Engine,  in  the  German 
Department,  is  a  remarkably  ingenious  and  exceedingly  useful  and 
effective  machine,  applicable  with  advantage  in  many  cases  in  the 
industrial  arts,  more  than  three  thousand  ^eing  now  in  use  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe,  working  with  considerable  economy  and 
effect. 


PLANING   MACHINE— SIDE  ELEVATION. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co. 

In  all  gas-engines,  as  previously  designed,  the  motive  power  has 
been  obtained  by  the  direct  action  of  the  force  of  the  explosion  of  a 
mixture  of  gases  on  the  surface  of  the  piston,  in  a  similar  manner 
to  that  in  which  steam  acts  in  the  steam-engine.  In  this  engine 
the  main  characteristic  may  be  said  to  be  the  use  of  a  "free 
piston,"  rising  without  resistance  upon  explosion,  the  motive  power 
being  obtained  indirectly  during  its  descent  by  the  pressure  of  the 


356 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


atmosphere  acting  upon  its  upper  surface,  owing  to  the  partial 
vacuum  below,  following  the  explosion.  Great  advantage  obtains 
from  this  arrangement  in  furnishing  a  power  of  longer  application, 
less  suddenly  exerted  and  more  steady  in  its  action.  In  former 

jig.  6, 


DETAILS  OP  PLANING  MACHINE. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co.  • 


machines  the  sudden,  intense  force  necessarily  given  out  could 
not  be  immediately  made  available,  resulting  in  destructive  action 
on  the  machinery  of  the  engine  and  in  great  loss  of  power, 
which  expended  itself  in  heat,  requiring  a  large  application  of  water 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


357 


to  keep  the  parts  cool,  and  avoid  oxidization  of  the  lubricant 
and  destruction  of  the  piston.  All  this  could  be  accomplished, 
but  the  consumption  of  water  was  great  and  the  heat  taken  up 

lig  12. 


Tig.  14. 


Fig.   11. 


Tig.  9. 


DETAILS  OF  PLANING  MACHINE. 

By  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co. 


by  it  was  carried  off  without   doing  work,  amounting  to  just  so 
much  power  lost. 

The  present  engine— as  shown  by  tne  perspective — consists  of 
a  large  vertical  piston-cylinder,  having  on  one  side,  near  the 
bottom,  a  valve-system  for  the  admission  and  ignition  of  the  mixed 
gases,  and  at  the  top  a  fly-wheel  and  the  necessary  mechanism 


358 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


for  utilizing  the  force  from  the  piston  and  for  working  the  valves 
'below.      Fig.   I    gives    a    cross-section   at   the   base,    showing   the 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  ,876."\        ATMOSPHERIC  GAS  ENGINE. 

'  By  Langen  &  Otto. 


\Machinery  Hall. 


valve   arrangement,  and    Fig.  2    a  partly    sectional    detail    of   the 
mechanism  at  the  top. 

The   most  novel   part  of   the   design   consists   in   the   method 
adopted  by  which   the  piston   is  allowed   to  move    freely  upward, 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL.  359 

but  must  connect  with  the  fly-wheel  as  it  returns  downward. 
The  piston-rod  is  a  rack,  and  gears  into  a  toothed  wheel,  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  which  consists  of  a  central  pulley,  a,  keyed  on  to  the 
shaft  of  the  fly-wheel  and  surrounded  by  a  toothed  ring,  b,  on  the 
interior  face  of  which  three  inclined  surfaces  are  cut.  Between 
each  of  these  and  a  corresponding  curved  wedge,  <r,  faced  on  the 
side  next  to  the  pulley  with  leather,  a  set  of  live  rollers — made 
of  rubber — travels  freely.  On  the  upward  motion  of  the  piston, 
the  toothed  ring  is  free  and  revolves  backward  upon  its  central 
pulley;  but  upon  the  return  stroke,  the  live  rollers  wedge  in 
between  the  ring  and  pulley,  giving  a  firm  hold  on  the  shaft  and 
allowing  the  piston  to  impart  its  motion  to  it.  One  might  suppose 
that  ratchet-wheel  and  pawl  would  accomplish  this  result  better, 
but  it  was  found  too  sudden  and  rigid  in  its  action  and  on  trial 
abandoned. 

To  start  the  engine  the  piston  is  lifted  up  about  one-eleventh 
of  its  stroke,  causing  a  proper  mixture  of  gas  and  air  to  be  drawn 
in  under  it  by  the  passage  x,  x,  Fig.  I,  and  at  the  same  time,  by 
the  motion  of  the  valve,  the  chamber,  y,  filled  with  gas  and  air, 
goes  first  downward,  igniting  its  contents  by  a  flame,  w,  continually 
burning  outside,  and  then  upward  to  x,  where  it  fires  the  charge 
under  the  piston.  The  resulting  expansion  drives  the  piston  up 
very  rapidly,  reducing  the  temperature  of  the  gaseous  contents 
of  the  cylinder,  consuming  the  heat  in  work,  and  the  result  is  a 
partial  vacuum  under  the  piston  which,  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  then  makes  a  return  stroke.  The  atmosphere  is  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder  from  the 
outside  and  destroying  the  vacuum;  but  a  valve  is  provided  that 
allows  the  products  of  combustion  to  be  expelled  by  the  piston 
as  it  reaches  the  bottom.  The  pawl,  d,  Fig.  2,  in  gear  with  the 
ratchet-wheel,  e,  on  the  main  shaft  gives  the  proper  valve-motion. 
This  pawl  is  controlled  by  an  ordinary  governor,  worked  by  bevel- 
gearing  from  the  fly-wheel  shaft,  and  when  the  engine  is  running 
at  full  speed,  a  lever  connected  with  this  governor  holds  the  pawl 
away  from  the  ratchet-wheel,  e,  and  no  motion  of  the  piston 


36° 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


takes  place.  -  As  soon  as  the  speed  decreases  in  the  least,  however, 
the  action  of  the  governor  releases  the  pawl,  which  makes  con- 
nection with  the  ratchet,  and,  causing  one  turn,  operates  the 
valve  rod,  and,  at  the  same  moment,  by  means  of  the  mechanism, 
it  /£,  /,  m,  n,  raises  the  piston-rod  far  enough  from  the  bottom  to 
receive  the  charge  of  mixed  gases;  the  explosion  follows  and 
the  piston  rises,  repeating  its  operation  as  before.  It  will  be  seen 


FIG.  i.    ATMOSPHERIC  GAS  ENGINE. 

By  Langen  &  Otto. 

by  this  that  the  piston  does  not  necessarily  act  at  every  revolution 
of  the  driver,  unless  the  full  capacity  of  the  engine  is  used,  but  only 
works  when  required  to  keep  up  the  power.  The  driving-wheel 
may  make  even  forty  or  more  revolutions  without  any  motion  of 
the  piston,  unless  the  falling  of  the  governor  brings  it  into  action. 
The  economical  effect  of  this  is  at  once  apparent,  as  the  consumption 
of  gas  becomes  directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  work  done. 
The  driving  pressure  on  the  return  stroke  varies  from  eleven 
pounds  per  square  inch  at  first  to  nothing,  at  about  four- fifths  of 


MA  CHINER  Y  HA  LL.  361 

the  stroke;  or,  say,  a  mean  effective  pressure  of  about  seven 
pounds  per  square  inch  through  the  entire  movement.  The  parties 
claim  a  consumption  of  gas  of  26.5  cubic  feet  per  horse-power 
per  hour,  and  about  12  per  cent,  effective  power  on  the  theoretical 
amount  supplied  by  the  fuel. 

The  engines  make  a  slight  noise  in  working, — an  inherent 
feature  in  machines  of  this  kind,— but  there  are  undoubtedly 
decided  advantages  in  economy  of  fuel,  cleanliness,  absolute  safety 
from  accident  by  explosion,  and  capability  of  starting  at  full  power  at 
a  moment's  notice,  making  these  machines  formidable  rivals  of 
steam-engine  in  the  limited  sphere  for  which  they  are  adapted. 
Messrs.  Schleicher  Bros.,  of  Philadelphia,  represent  the  exhibitors 
of  the  Gas-Engine  and  have  made  arrangements  to  manufacture  it 
in  the  United  States. 

Greater  prominence  has  been  given  to  the  Machinery  Department 
of  this  exhibition  than  has  ever  been  the  case  before,  and  a 
building  has  been  erected  which  has  been  pronounced  by  those 
most  competent  to  judge  as  the  best  ever  provided  for  the  purposes 
intended.  In  the  centre  of  this  building  stands  that  wonder  of 
the  modern  era,  that  thing  which  needs  but  the  breath  of  life — 
what  no  human  being  has  yet  been  able  to  invent,  but  must  always 
supply  by  himself— to  be  a  creation;  that  invention  upon  which 
now  depends  the  daily  bread  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  ; 
a  grand  and  noble  specimen  of  the  "Steam  Engine."  There  it 
stands,  holding  its  place  as  a  veritable  king  among  machinery,  so 
powerful  and  yet  so  gentle,  capable  of  producing  the  most  pon- 
derous blows  upon  the  anvil,  or  of  weaving  the  most  delicate 
fabrics;  that  to  which  all  other  machines  must  be  subservient, 
and  without  whose  labor  our  efforts  would  be  small  indeed;  the 
breathing  pulse,  the  soul  of  the  machinery  exhibition.  This  engine, 
which  may  be  seen  from  all  parts  of  the  building  towering  up 
above  everything  else,  comes  from  little  Rhode  Island,  from  the 
city  of  Providence,  and  for  its  existence  the  Exhibition  is  indebted 
to  the  energy  and  perseverance  of  Mr.  George  H.  Corliss,  pro- 
prietor of  the  Corliss  Steam  Engine  Company. 


362 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Early  in  1875,  when  the  question  came  up  of  the  power  that 
would  be  required  in  the  building  to  run  the  fourteen  acres  of 
machinery  which  it  was  expected  would  be  on  exhibition,  Mr. 
George  H.  Corliss,  Centennial  Commissioner  from  Rhode  Island, 


FIG.  a.    ATMOSPHERIC  GAS  ENGINE. 

By  Langtn  &  Otto. 


conceived  the  idea  of  providing  a  single  engine  that  should  furnish 
this  power — estimated  at  1400  horses — placing  it  in  the  centre  of 
the  Machinery  Hall,  and  he  made  an  offer  to  the  Commission  to 
this  effect.  The  Commission  feeling  that  the  honor  of  supplying 
this  power  should  be  distributed  among  different  establishments, 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  363 

did  not  accept  the  offer,  but  invited  proposals  from  prominent 
firms  for  what  would  be  necessary  to  operate  either  the  whole  of 
the  shafting  in  the  building,  or  each  line  of  shafting  separately, 
so  that  it  might  be  distributed  among  as  many  different  parties 
as  there  were  lines  of  shafting.  When  the  proposals  were  received, 
it  was  discovered  that  they  were  not  sufficient  altogether  to  cover 
the  requirements  of  the  exhibition,  that  none  of  the  bidders 
would  agree  to  furnish  the  whole  of  the  power,  and  that  none 
would  provide  the  boilers  and  connections  necessary  for  the  com- 
plete execution  of  the  work.  It  was  also  found  that  the  cost  to 
the  Commission  would  be  much  more  than  by  Mr.  Corliss'  propo- 
sition. After  considerable  delay,  Mr.  Corliss  was  then  unanimously 
requested  to  renew  his  offer,  and  in  June,  1875,  eleven  months 
before  the  opening,  a  contract  was  closed  with  him  for  the  work, 
giving  him  only  ten  months  to  construct  that  for  which  there  had 
not  as  yet  been  even  the  first  sketch  prepared.  How  promptly  the 
work  has  been  performed,  will  be  apparent  when  we  state  that  on 
the  day  fixed  by  the  contract — April  17,  1876 — the  engine  was 
up  in  place,  steam  was  turned  on,  and  it  was  run  for  some  time 
with  perfect  success. 

The  special  characteristics  of  the  Corliss  Engine  as  compared 
with  other  steam  engines  may  be  said  to  consist  in  the  valve 
gear,  the  form  of  valve  and  the  peculiar  method  adopted  by 
which  steam  is  freely  admitted  at  the  full  boiler  pressure  and 
discharged  after  use,  without  presenting  any  resistance  to  the  piston. 
Independent  parts  are  used  for  admitting  and  exhausting  the 
steam  with  four  separate  valves,  the  steam  being  cut  off  from  the 
cylinder  entirely  by  the  main  steam  valves  without  the  employment 
of  any  supplementary  valves.  The  steam  valves  are  opened 
against  the  resistance  of  springs,  and  a  liberating  gear  is  called 
into  play,  disconnecting  the  valves  and  leaving  them  free  to  be 
closed  by  the  springs.  These  springs  are  brought  to  rest  without 
shock  after  closing  by  means  of  an  air  cushion  formed  by  a  small 
cylinder  with  a  closed  bottom,  in  which  a  piston  is  fitted  to  work 
easily,  a  certain  amount  of  air  being  imprisoned  just  as  this  piston 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  365 

approaches  the  bottom,  acting  as  a  cushion  and  preventing  any 
shock.  The  valves  of  admission  are  regulated  by  direct  connection 
with  the  governor,  thus  controlling  the  speed  of  the  engine  with- 
out the  use  of  a  throttle-valve  in  the  main  supply-pipe. 

In  reference  to  the  special  points  which  distinguish  this  particular 
engine,  it  may  be  said  to  be  a  strictly  engineering  design,  the 
material  of  the  framework  being  arranged  directly  on  the  con- 
structive lines  so  as  to  best  resist  the  action  of  the  forces  which 
come  upon  it  at  the  least  waste  and  expense.  The  forms  of  the 
lines  of  curvature  of  the  walking-beams  are  important  in  considering 
the  effects  of  cooling  in  the  castings,  and  the  shape  is  that  best 
adapted  to  resist  the  stresses  to  which  they  are  exposed.  The 
arrangements  by  which  the  keys  of  the  connecting-rods  are  acces- 
sible in  any  position  of  the  beams,  and  the  cutting  away  of 
the  lower  portions  of  the  beams,  making  the  lower  lines  different 
from  the  upper,  are  all  noticeable.  In  fact,  every  detail  of  the 
design  has  been  made  with  a  view  to  the  strength,  symmetry  and 
accessibility  of  the  parts.  The  valve-gearing  is  a  very  novel 
and  characteristic  feature,  all  the  peculiarities  having  been  empha- 
sized and  carried  to  greater  perfection  than  in  any  previous  engine 
manufactured  by  the  company.  The  crank-pins  are  covered  with 
a  coating  of  the  best  steel,  hardened  and  ground  as  smooth 
as  glass,  and  all  work  on  the  machine  has  been  carried  out 
with  equal  thoroughness.  The  engine  is  really  a  double  engine 
formed  of  two  large  beam  engines  of  700  horse-power  each,  set 
upon  a  raised  platform  fifty-five  feet  in  diameter,  and  having  between 
them  a  single  fly-wheel  (a  gear),  the  cranks  of  both  connecting 
with  the  same  crank-shaft.  Although  possessing  nominally  1400 
horse-power,  it  may  be  increased,  if  found  necessary,  to  2500 
actual  horse-power.  The  cylinders  are  40  inches  in  diameter,  and 
the  stroke  is  10  feet,  the  intention  being  to  work  with  from 
twenty-five  to  eighty  pounds  of  steam,  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  Exhibition.  An  engine  at  the  Wamsutta  Mills,  New 
Bedford,  has  a  larger  cylinder,  but  it  is  not  so  heavy  an  engine, 
and  will  not  stand  so  high  a  pressure  or  do  as  much  work  as 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  36 7 

this  one.  The  air-pump  and  condensing  apparatus  are  fully  pro- 
vided as  required.  The  gear  fly-wheel,  which  is  30  feet  in 
diameter,  and  cast  in  sections,  weighs  about  56  tons,  and  is  believed 
to  be  the  heaviest  cut  wheel  ever  made.  It  has  two  hundred  and 
sixteen  teeth,  finished  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  moving  without 
noise  at  the  required  rate  of  running,  viz.,  thirty-six  revolutions 
per  minute.  The  crank-shaft  is  19  inches  in  diameter  and  12  feet 
long,  made  of  the  best  hammered  iron,  and  the  bearings  are  1 8 
inches  in  diameter  and  27  inches  long.  The  cranks  are  of  gun- 
metal,  weighing  over  3  tons  each.  The  walking-beams — which 
weigh  about  II  tons  each — are  cast  in  one  piece,  and  are  9  feet 
wide  in  the  centre  and  27  feet  long.  The  connecting-rods  are  of 
horse-shoe  scrap-iron,  and  the  piston-rods,  6^  inches  in  diameter 
are  of  steel,  their  velocity  at  the  regular  rate  of  speed  being  720 
feet  per  minute.  The  large  gear-wheel,  connecting  with  the  gear 
fly-wheel,  is  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  a  single  casting  of  17,000 
pounds  weight.  It  is  placed  on  a  main  shaft  252  feet  in  length, 
running  crosswise  of  the  building,  and  connecting  at  the  ends 
and  at  two  intermediate  points  by  nests  of  bevelled  gear  6  feet 
in  diameter  to  shafts  108  feet  in  length,  running  at  right-angles  to 
the  main  shaft,  and  extending  to  points  directly  under  the  lines 
of  overhead  machinery  shafting.  These  four  connecting  shafts  have 
at  their  ends  the  main  pulleys — eight  in  all — seven  of  them  8  and 
one  9  feet  in  diameter,  and  each  32  inches  across  the  face.  They 
are  connected  to  the*  main  machinery  shafting  overhead  by  double 
belting  30  inches  in  width,  making  an  aggregate  width  for  all 
together  of  20  feet,  required  for  the  transmission  of  the  whole 
power  of  the  engine.  Each  belt  drives  a  line  of  shafting  of  over 
600  feet  in  length,  with  a  separate  section  of  the  machinery,  and 
where  the  belts  rise  from  the  floor,  they  are  enclosed  by  glass 
partitions  so  that  they  may  be  out  of  the  way  and  yet  be  visible 
to  the  visitor  as  exhibits. 

The  engine  as  a  whole  is  39  feet  in  height  from  the  main 
floor  of  building  to  top  of  walking-beam  at  its  highest  pitch,  and 
every  part  is  easily  accessible  by  means  of  balconies  and  stairways. 


368 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Its  total  weight,  including  everything  connected  with  it,  is  about 
680  tons.  The  general  proportions  are  exceedingly  harmonious 
and  graceful,  and  the  details  simple  and  in  excellent  taste,  the 
frame-work,  walking-beams,  balconies,  etc.,  being  painted  of  a  quiet, 
uniform  tint,  relieved  only  by  the  polished  work  of  the  cylinders 
and  moving  parts. 


M 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


FIG  .1.     OIL-CUP. 

By  Loncrgan. 


{Machinery  Hall. 


The  boiler-house — just  south  of  Machinery  Hall — contains 
twenty  Corliss  upright  boilers  of  70  horse-power  each,  of  a  simple, 
vertical  tubular  type,  entirely  accessible  inside  and  out.  The  water 
rising  very  rapidly  around  the  tubes  in  the  central  part  of  the 
boiler  is  provided  with  a  large  return  space  next  to  the  outside 
where  the  current  moving  more  slowly  allows  an  opportunity  for 
the  deposit  of  sediment,  which  may  readily  be  removed.  At  the 
top,  each  tube  is  easily  reached  for  cleaning  when  required. 
Horizontal  flues,  lined  with  fire-brick  connect  with  two  brick 


MA  CHINE  R  Y  HALL. 


369 


chimneys,  and  the  steam  is  conveyed  to  the  engine  by  means 
of  a  double-riveted  wrought-iron  pipe  18  inches  in  diameter  and 
320  feet  long,  well  protected  with  felting  to  retain  the  heat  of  the 
steam,  and  carried  through  an  underground  passage,  lighted  by 
gas,  and  sufficiently  large  for  a  man  to  easily  walk  its  whole  length. 


"The  Great  Exhibition, 


FIG.  2.    OIL-CUP. 


{Machinery  Hall. 


Among  the  firms  represented  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition 
none  occupy  greater  prominence  than  Messrs.  Burnham,  Parry, 
Williams  &  Co.,  of  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  Philadelphia. 

Among  the  exhibits  of  this  firm  is  a  Passenger  Locomotive 
built  for  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey,  and  represented  by 


370 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  engraving  on  page  364.  It  has  a  gauge  of  road  of  4  feet 
8}4  inches  and  a  total  wheel-base  of  44  feet  2  inches,  including 
tender,  or  of  locomotive  alone,  22  feet  5  inches.  The  driving- 
wheels  are  8  feet  6  inches  to  centres  and  5  feet  2  inches  in  diameter, 
having  centres  of  cast-iron  with  hollow  spokes  and  rims.  The 
truck-wheels  are  2  feet  4  inches  in  diameter.  The  Washburn 
steel  tires  are  used.  The  total  weight  of  the  locomotive  in  working 
order  is  75,OOO  pounds,  and  the  weight  on  driving-wheels  51,500 


pounds.  The  cylin- 
ders are  placed  hori- 
zontally, each  cylin- 
der cast  in  one  piece 
with  half  saddle, 
right-  and  left-hand 
cylinders,  reversible 
and  interchangeable, 
the  diameter  of 
cylinder  being  I  foot 
5  inches,  and  length 
of  stroke  I  foot  10 
inches.  The  oil- 
valves  to  cylinders 
are  placed  in  the 
cab  and  connected 
to  steam-chests  by 
pipes  running  under 
jacket  of  boiler. 


FIG.  3.     OIL-CUP. 


The  boiler  is  of  the 
wagon-top  type,  fur- 
nished  with  one 
dome  and  made  of 
best  homogeneous 
cast-steel  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch 
thick,  manufactured 
by  Hussey,  Wells 
&  Co.,  the  outside 
diameter  at  the 
smallest  ring  being 
4  feet.  The  fire-box 
is  of  cast-steel  of 
the  same  manufac- 
ture, 8  feet  6  inches 
long  by  2  feet  9^ 
inches  wide,  the  side 
sheets  being  one- 


fourth  and  the  back  sheet  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
tubes  are  of  iron,  lap-welded,  made  by  W.  C.  Allison  &  Sons, 
with  copper  ferrules  on  the  fire-box  ends.  They  are  2  inches  in 
diameter,  1 1  feet  3  inches  long  and  one  hundred  and  sixty-three 
in  number.  The  heating  surface  comprises  1065  square  feet, 
including  grate,  fire-box  and  tubes. 

The  tender   has  eight  wheels  of  2  feet  6  inches  diameter,  fur- 
nished   with    Taylor's   steel    tires.      The  capacity  of  tank    is  2200 


MACHINERY  HALL.  371 


gallons,  the  tank-iron  being  manufactured  by  the  Catasauqua 
Manufacturing  Company.  The  engine  throughout  is  finished  accord- 
ing to  the  high  standard  for  which  this  firm  is  so  celebrated — 
solid,  substantial  and  neat,  with  no  useless  ornamentation,  every 
part  fitted  to  guages  and  thoroughly  interchangeable,  the  whole 
being  an  excellent  specimen  of  American  manufacture. 

In  connection  with  the  motive-power  exhibits  we  may  very 
appropriately  mention  Lonergan's  Patent  Oil-Cups  and  Automatic 
Lubricators.  The  principles  upon  which  they  work  have  been 
beautifully  carried  out,  resulting  in  most  excellent  forms  of  apparatus 
for  the  requirements.  The  oil-cups  are  of  several  varieties  to 
suit  different  purposes.  Our  first  engraving,  on  page  368,  shows 
the  usual  construction  for  stationary  motion,  being  partly  in  section 
and  partly  an  exterior  view. 

It  consists  of  a  metallic  cup  or  casing,  A,  A,  pierced  by 
diamond-shaped  openings  in  the  cylindrical  part,  with  a  tube,  B, 
to  be  connected  with,  and  passing  to,  the  part  to  be  lubricated. 
Inside  of  this  casing  is  a  glass  cylinder,  C,  with  cork  rings,  D,  D, 
at  top  and  bottom.  The  cap,  E,  screws  down  tightly  on  to  the 
cork,  making  an  oil-tight  joint.  A  plug,  F,  with  ground  joint, 
and  held  in  place  by  a  spiral  spring,  G,  effectually  closes  the  tube 
B  and  prevents  the  passage  of  oil  unless  desired  otherwise.  This 
plug  connects  with  the  handle,  H,  H,  on  top,  the  connection  being 
movable  through  the  cap,  E,  of  the  casing  and  hollow  in  the 
upper  portion  as  shown  at  I,  I,  there  being  openings,  K,  at  the 
lower  end  of  this  hollow  space,  and  a  cap,  L,  screwed  on  at  the 
top,  the  latter  having  an  air-hole,  O,  pierced  through  it.  A  set 
screw,  M,  passes  through  the  rim  of  the  handle,  H,  with  a  rest, 
N,  for  the  same  in  the  cap,  E.  When  it  is  desired  to  fill  the  cup, 
the  cap,  L,  is  unscrewed  and  the  oil  poured  in,  the  handle,  H, 
being  turned  around  until  the  set-screw,  M,  is  off  of  its  rest,  N, 
the  plug,  F,  then  tightly  closing  the  entrance  to  the  tube,  B.  After 
filling  and  replacing  the  cap,  L,  then  by  turning  the  handle,  H, 
and  placing  the  set-screw,  M,  on  its  rest,  we  can,  by  adjusting 
this  screw,  regulate  exactly  the  required  amount  of  opening  neces- 


372  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

sary  at  F  for  the  proper  oiling  of  the  machine.  When  the  machine 
is  at  rest  and  no  oiling  needed,  it  is  only  requisite  to  raise  the 
handle,  H,  and  turn  it  so  as  to  move  the  set-screw  from  its  rest, 
and  the  spring,  G,  at  once  closes  the  plug,  F,  into  the  opening 
of  B,  and  stops  the  consumption  of  oil. 

Figure  2  shows  a  modification  adapted  to  movable  parts  under 
rotary  motion.  The  spring,  G,  is  dispensed  with  and  the  loose 
plug,  F,  has  a  little  stop,  P,  in  it,  the  set-screw,  M,  being  differently 
arranged  as  shown.  At  each  rotation  the  loose  plug,  F,  is  thrown 
up,  the  distance  of  its  throw  being  regulated  by  the  set-screw, 
and  a  certain  amount  of  oil  finds  its  way  down  the  tube,  B,  B. 

The  Automatic  Lubricator,  as  shown  by  Fig.  3,  has  a  cup 
composed  of  the  best  quality  steam  metal  and  made  extra  heavy, 
with  a  regulating  arm  on  top  allowing  adjustment  to  any  feed 
desired,  there  being  small  holes  or  rests  for  the  end  of  the  jam- 
screw  of  this  arm  at  short  intervals  all  around  the  circumference 
of  the  cap  of  cup.  In  arranging  it  for  use,  the  valve,  B,  is  closed 
and  the  cup  filled  with  lubricant  through  the  stem,  E.  The  top, 
D,  which  has  a  lignum-vitae  handle  to  prevent  heating,  is  then 
screwed  down  tight,  and  the  valve,  B,  opened  by  turning  the 
handle  until  the  indicator  or  arm  is  half-way  around  the  cup.  After 
a  moment  it  is  moved  partly  back  to  within  say  six  or  eight  holes 
from  the  starting-point.  By  actual  experience,  the  engineer  can 
adjust  this  to  the  exact  requirements  of  his  engine.  Steam  passes 
into  the  cup  by  the  valve,  B,  and  condensing  into  water  sinks  to 
the  bottom  of  the  oil,  lifting  an  equal  amount  of  the  latter  to  the 
top,  which  flows  down  the  pipe  to  the  parts  where  lubrication  is 
desired.  The  large  opening  in  the  pipe  to  the  top  of  the  feed- 
valve  allows  a  circulation  of  steam,  keeping  the  lubricant  in  a 
liquid  state  independent  of  outside  temperature  and  securing  thereby 
a  uniform  feed.  A  waste-cock  is  provided  for  drawing  off  the 
condensed  water  and  impurities  which  collect  in  the  bottom 
of  the  cup. 

Messrs.  Richards,  London  &  Kelley,  of  Philadelphia,  and 
London,  England,  make  a  fine  exhibit  of  machinery  for  working 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  373 

in  wood,  from  which  we  select  one  of  their  Band  Sawing  Machines, 
the  front  and  side  elevations  of  which  are  shown  by  the  engravings 
on  pages  374  and  376.  The  machine  is  very  substantially  con- 
structed, the  frame  being  of  cast-iron  in  one  piece,  with  a  rectangular 
cored  section.  The  wheels  are  sixty  inches  in  diameter,  made  of 
wrought  iron  covered  on  the  circumference  with  wood  faced  with 

o 

leather  or  gum,  and  are  warranted  to  stand  the  tension  of  blades 
up  to  three  inches  in  width,  and  resist  safely  any  centrifugal 
strain.  A  vertical  adjustment  of  sixteen  inches  is  provided  to  the 
top  wheel,  which  is  carried  on  a  steel  shaft  two  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter,  with  bearings  on  both  sides  of  the  wheel,  and  saws 
may  be  used  up  to  thirty-two  feet  in  length  and  three  inches  in 
width.  The  supports  of  the  shaft  rest  on  springs,  which  equalize 
the  tension  on  the  blades,  allowing  them  to  expand  and  contract 
freely. 

The  machine  hasV  feed-rolls  adapted  to  take  timber  of  twenty- 
four  inches  in  width  and  ten  inches  in  thickness,  or  to  cut  from 
one  side  of  a  plank  five  inches  thick.  The  method  of  imparting 
motion?  to  the  feed-rolls  is  novel  and  very  Superior,  'being  accom- 
plished as  follows :  A  revolving  plate  with  its  axis  at  right  angles 
to  the  feed-shaft  comes  into  rolling  contact  with  the  circumference 
of  a  wheel  on  the  feed-shaft,  which  slides  on  a  spline  of  the 
shaft,  and  may  be  moved  to  and  fro  each  way  from  the  centre  of 
the  revolving-plate.  The  action  of  the  revolving-plate  causes  this 
wheel  to  turn  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  depending  upon  its 
distance  from  the  centre,  and  its  movement  operates  the  feed,  the 
speed  of  which  is  regulated  accordingly.  The  feed  will  be  either 
forward  or  backward,  depending  on  which  side  of  the  centre  of 
the  revolving-plate  the  wheel  is  placed,  and  the  direction  can  be 
changed  at  a  moment's  notice.  The  power  being  frictional  makes 
it  a  safeguard  against  breakage,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  suffi- 
ciently tractive  for  all  practical  purposes.  Attempts  have  been 
made  previously  to  use  feeding  appliances  of  this  kind  in  moulding 
and  other  machines,  but  the  conditions  were  for  some  strange  reason 
always  reversed  and  the  result  was  a  failure.  The  arrangement 


374 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


here   adopted    seems   to   accomplish   all   that   is   wanted,   and   the. 
rate  of  feed  may  be  increased  from  zero  to  forty  feet  per  minute 


•  The  Great  Exhibition, 


BAND  SAWING  MACHINE. 

By  Riehards,  London  &•  Kelley,  Philadelphia. 


\Machinery  Hall. 


or  the  reverse,  the  feed  being  started  or  stopped  at  pleasure,  and 
made  either  forward  or  backward. 

The  saws  used  are  those  of  M.  M.  Perin  &  Co.,  of  Paris,  France. 
Band    saws   were    invented    nearly    seventy    years    ago,    William 


MA CHINERY  HALL.  375 

Newberry,  of  the  city  of  London,  England,  having  in  1808  con- 
structed and  patented  a  band  sawing  machine,  which,  judging  from 
the  illustrations  preserved  of  it,  appears  to  have  been  a  very  good 
machine,  possessing  nearly  all  the  capabilities  of  those  of  the 
present  time.  The  pivotal  table,  the  parallel  guage,  the  feeding 
rolls,  and  radius  link  were  all  provided,  the  great  material  difference 
being  the  inconvenient  manner  of  removing  and  replacing  the 
blades.  Circular  saws  were  hardly  in  use  at  that  time,  and  the 
opportunity  would  seem  to  have  been  exceedingly  good  for 
competition  against  the  reciprocating  saws  of  the  day.  Little  or  no 
use  was  made  of  the  invention,  however,  and  it  lay  dormant  until 
within  the  last  twenty  years,  when  the  subject  again  came  forward, 
and  saws  of  this  kind  were  first  exhibited  as  a  novelty  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1855.  The  cause  of  this  is  believed  to  have  been 
due  to  the  difficulty  experienced  in  the  manufacture  and  joining 
of  the  blades,  which  could  not  be  made  to  stand  the  flexion  and 
strain  to  which  they  were  submitted  in  working,  and  it  was  not 
until  M.  Perin,  of  Paris,  undertook  the  manufacture  of  blades  some 
twenty-five  years  ago,  and  by  perseverance  triumphed  over  every 
difficulty,  that  the  success  of  the  band  saw  was  achieved. 

The  blade  is  the  principal  part  of  the  machine  and  the  only 
part  from  which  difficulties  arise  in  its  operation.  France  has  had 
the  monopoly  of  the  manufacture  of  saw-blades,  and  will  probably 
keep  it  for  a  long  time,  unless  some  of  our  American  firms  come 
forward  and  spend  the  money  and  time  on  experiment,  and  bestow 
that  care  and  attention  on  the  work  which  have  produced  their 
results  in  France,  trusting  not  to  any  present  remuneration,  bufe 
rather  to  what  may  come  in  future  years.  The  impetus  given  to 
the  manufacture  by  the  efforts  of  M.  Perin,  the  special  knowledge 
requisite,  much  of  it  kept  secret;  the  tedious  hammering  process 
required,  necessitating  skilled  labor,  which  may  be  obtained  at  so 
much  less  cost  in  France  than  elsewhere,  and  many  other  reasons, 
have  all  combined  to  give  her  the  supremacy. 

There  are  various  causes  for  the  breaking  of  saws,  such  as, 
crystallization,  extreme  or  irregular  tension,  heat  generated  by 


37* 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


friction  on  the  guides,  or  careless  use.  It  is  well  known  to  all 
those  interested  in  such  matters  that  a  certain  temper  is  requisite 
in  deflecting  steel  springs,  and  that  if  this  temper  is  obtained 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


BAND  SAWING  MACHINE. 

By  Richards,  London  &  Kelley,  Philadelphia. 


{Machinery  Hall. 


they  will  last  for  years  or  for  a  life-time.  When  one  remembers, 
then,  how  difficult  it  is  to  obtain  this  temper,  even  with  short 
springs  like  those  in  gunlocks,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  the  almost 
insuperable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  obtaining  this  temper  with 


MACHINERY  HALL.  377 

bands  of  steel  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  length;  and  the  least 
variation  in  this  temper  for  even  an  inch  in  the  length  of  the  saw 
destroys  the  value  of  the  blade.  In  addition  to  this,  as  if  to 
increase  still  further  the  difficulties  already  quite  sufficient,  there 
appears  to  be  no  reliable  method  for  ascertaining  in  a  finished  blade 
if  the  quality  and  uniformity  of  the  temper  are  correct.  The 
buyer  must  depend  on  the  good  faith  of  the  manufacturer,  the 
value  of  the  saw  depending  not  on  ks  appearance,  but  on  the  care 
with  which  it  has  been  made  and  the  perfection  of  the  processes 
used;  and  the  blade  should  be  completely  finished  ready  for  use 
by  one  firm,  so  that  what  may  leave  the  hands  of  one  party  in 
good  condition  may  not  be  spoiled  by  the  bad  work  of  another. 

Thousands  of  Band  Saw  Machines  are  now  in  use,  and  occu- 
pying the  high  position  that  they  do  in  reference  to  economy  of 
both  labor  and  material,  they  may  well  be  classed  among  the 
prominent  machines  of  the  day. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  band  saws  we  would  draw 
attention  to  an  exceedingly  effective  "Band  Saw  Setting  Machine" 
on  exhibition  and  manufactured  by  the  same  firm  under  the  patent 
of  Mr.  L.  O.  Orton,  the  inventor.  This  machine  is  intended  to 
accomplish  two  objects;  to  furnish  a  method  of  rapidly  and 
accurately  setting  saw  teeth  and  to  do  so  by  impact  or  blows 
just  as  would  be  done  by  a  hand  hammer,  thus  giving  a  permanent 
set  to  the  teeth  without  liability  to  change  as  when  set  by  springing 
or  bending.  The  illustration  on  page  378  shows  the  machine  and 
its  method  of  working,  the  saw  being  held  in  a  filing  frame,  such 
as  usually  employed,  to  which  is  attached  the  setting  device  which 
is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  really  a  hammer  in  the  hands  of 
the  operator.  The  frame  is  formed  of  two  rails  or  bars  connected 
by  cross  rails  on  which  are  wheels,  which  receive  and  stretch  trie 
saw  blade  in  position.  The  setting  mechanism  consists  of  a  pivoted 
swinging  frame  carrying  two  dies  or  hammers  so  arranged  that 
when  the  operator  by  means  of  a  handle  on  top  swings  the  frame 
back  and  forth,  they  will  strike  right  and  left,  giving  alternate 
blows  against  two  die-blocks  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  saw 


378 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


teeth,  the  saw 
blade  passing 
through  a 
groove,andthe 
alternate  teeth 
coming  under 
the  hammer. 
By  a  simple 
me  chanism 
a  hook  or 
pawl  engages 
with  the  saw 
teeth  and  at 
each  move- 
ment of  the 
swinging  frame 
draws  the  saw 
forward  the 
distance  of  two 
teeth  so  that 
the  teeth  are 
brought  auto- 
matically into 
the  proper  po- 
sitions to  be 
struck  one  pair 
after  another. 
An  adjustment 
is  provided  to 
regulate  this 
movement  of 
the  saw  in  a 
moment  to  any 
pitch  of  teeth. 
Where  large 


saws  are  under 
operation  or 
wherethe  teeth 
are  far  apart 
two  pawls  are 
used,  one  for 
each  single 
swing,  but  with 
ordinary  saws 
one  pawl  is 
sufficient  and 
is  preferred. 
The  whole  of 
the  setting  me- 
chanism at- 
tached to  the 
frame  may 
slide  to  any 
part,  or  be  se- 
curedifdesired 
and  used  inde- 
pendently.The 
degree  of  force 
of  the  blows 
and  the  time 
in  which  they 
are  given  are 
in  direct  con- 
trol of  the 
operator,  the 
action  on  the 
teeth  being  the 
same  in  effect, 
but  more  per- 
fect than  can 


MA  CHINE RY  HALL. 


379 


be  attained  by  a  hammer  in  the  ordinary  way.  A  filing  vise  is 
also  attached  to  the  frame,  although  it  may  be  used  independently, 
and  is  arranged  with  an  improved  clamping  device  consisting  of 
two  volute  faces,  one  formed  solid  with  the  vise  and  the  other 
with  a  handle,  there  being  in  this  case  with  a  long  vise,  three  of 


FILING  VISE. 


these  with  handles  connected  by  links,  and  all  actuated  by  one 
movement.  By  turning  the  handle  right  or  left  the  jaws  of  the 
vise  are  instantly  closed  or  released.  A  band  saw  file  with  round 
corners  is  recommended  and  used,  giving  a  circular  form  to  the 


BAND  SAW  FILE. 


bottom  of  the  spaces  between  the  teeth  and  preventing  fracture. 
A  scarfing  frame  and  tongs  for  soldering  the  two  ends  of  a  saw- 
blade  together  are  also  exhibited.  The  ends  of  the  saw  are  first 
scarfed  or  tapered  for  a  length  of  one  to  two  teeth,  depending 


SOLDERING  TONGS. 


SCARFING  FRAME. 


on  the  pitch,  care  being  taken  to  make  the  scarfing  true  and  level. 
The  silver  solder  of  the  jewelers  is  generally  used,  rolled  into 
thin  strips  so  that  a  piece  of  the  size  of  the  lap  can  be  cut  off 
and  laid  between.  The  joints  are  cleansed  with  acid,  the  solder 
placed  between  and  the  whole  then  clasped  with  the  tongs  which 
must  be  at  a  full  red  heat.  The  tongs  are  removed  as  soon  as  the 


38o 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


RECIPROCATING  MORTISING  MACHINE. 

By  Richards,  London  &  Kelley. 


solder   runs,  and  a  wet  sponge  applied  to  restore  the  temper,  the 
joint  being  afterwards  filed  up  into  proper  shape 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


381 


Messrs.  Richards,  London  &  Kelley,  also  exhibit  a  strong  heavy 
"  Reciprocating  Mortising  Machine,"  arranged  for  railway  car  and 
other  similar  work,  which  is  deserving  of  notice.  Motion  in 
machinery  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  rotary  and  reciprocating, 
a  few  exceptional  cases  combining  both  motions.  There  are  various 
nifficulties  arising  in  the  employment  of  reciprocating  motion  that 
render  its  use  objectionable  wherever  it  can  be  avoided.  These 
difficulties  obtain  especially  in  wood-working  machinery  on  account 


ELEVATIONS  OF  .RECIPROCATING  MORTISING  MACHINE. 
By  Richards,  London  &  Kelley. 

of  the  speed  at  which  it  is  necessary  to  work.  In  consequence 
rotary  motion  is  every  day  coming  more  into  use,  and  new 
applications  being  made  of  it.  In  England  and  France  mortising 
is  done  almost  entirely  by  rotary  machines  or  by  hand,  but  in  this 
country  reciprocating  machines  have  been  extensively  used.  The 
variety  of  designs  from  different  makers  give  evidence  of  the 
imperfections  encountered  and  the  efforts  constantly  made  to  over- 
come  them.  The  machine  which  we  illustrate  belongs  to  that 
class  in  which  the  reciprocating  parts  are  all  brought  down  towards 


382 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  timber  operated  on,  the  chisel  having  a  continuous  motion 
with  a  uniform  range  and  a  positive  eccentric.  Chisels  of  any 
width  are  received,  and  there  are  two  boring  spindles,  one  fixed 


and  the  other  to  traverse  twelve  inches.  The  feed  movement  is 
actuated  by  a  treadle  and  may  be  locked  to  prevent  jarring  the 
foot  of  the  operator.  All  joints  are  compensating  and  operated 


MA  CHINE  R  Y  HALL.  383 

without  noise.  The  distinctive  feature  of  the  machine  consists  in 
its  being  direct  acting,  and  having  the  crank  shaft  not  on  top  but 
near  the  bottom  in  the  base  of  the  column,  the  machine  standing 
upon  a  foundation  without  top-bracing.  The  crank  shaft,  chisel 
bar  and  boring  spindles  are  of  steel. 

We  also  give  an  illustration  of  another  mortising  machine 
exhibited  by  this  same  firm  belonging  to  that  modification  in 
which  the  wood  is  moved  up  or  fed  to  the  chisel,  the  operating 
parts  consisting  of  a  crank  shaft,  a  plain  chisel  bar  and  connection. 
It  is  well  adapted  for  joiner  and  cabinet  work,  carriage  work  and 
general  purposes,  and  is  capable  of  being  driven  at  a  high  rate 
of  speed — four  hundred  to  five  hundred  revolutions  per  minute, 
like  the  previous  machine  requiring  no  top  bracing,  the  crank 
shaft  being  placed  in  the  base  near  to  the  foundation,  avoiding 
vibration  and  jar.  The  table  is  raised  by  a  foot  treadle  to  feed 
the  lumber  to  the  chisel  which  has  a  uniform  stroke  of  five  inches. 
The  chisel  is  provided  with  the  automatic  reversing  device  of 
H.  B.  Smith,  allowing  it  to  be  reversed  by  power  with  a  friction 
band  and  at  the  same  time  holding  the  chisel  bar  firmly  while  in 
motion  and  preventing  any  possible  deviation  from  its  proper  place 
owing  to  wear  or  loose  joints.  The  escapement  is  performed 
by  hand  so  that  the  chisel  can  be  reversed  at  will,  independent 
of  the  treadle.  The  table  is  made  either  as  here  shown  or  arranged 
to  clamp  the  piece  of  timber  to  be  mortised,  and  the  whole 
moved  by  rack  and  pinion.  The  firm  deserves  credit  for  the 
manner  in  which  it  has  endeavored  to  overcome  as  far  as  possible 
the  inherent  difficulties  in  this  class  of  machines. 

The  trip-  or  helve-hammer  approaches  nearer  to  the  hand- 
hammer  in  its  action  than  any  other  mechanical  agent  of  its  class, 
and  for  this  reason  is  better  adapted  to  certain  peculiar  kinds  of 
work.  There  have  been  various  causes,  however,  operating  against 
its  use,  one  being  the  difficulty  of  making  proper  connection  with 
the  driving  power.  The  sudden  shocks  which  it  produces  on 
shafting  in  starting,  the  irregular  motion  and  the  varying  power 
required,  all  prevent  the  use  of  rigid  connections,  necessitate  the 


384  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

adaptation  of  slipping  belts,  and  require  strict  application  of 
the  principles  of  elasticity  in  the  entire  construction  of  the  machine. 
Even  with  all  this,  the  wear  and  tear  in  the  ordinary  hammers, 
as  usually  built,  is  far  beyond  what  occurs  with  other  machines, 
tending  to  counteract  any  inherent  advantages  that  this  special 
form  may  possess.  The  Bradley  Manufacturing  Company,  of 
Syracuse,  New  York,  has  placed  on  exhibition  one  of  its  Rubber- 
Cushioned  Helve-Hammers,  represented  by  the  engraving  on  page 
382,  which  it  claims  possesses  great  advantages  and  improvements 
over  any  other  hammer  of  its  kind  in  use.  .With  the  exception 
of  the  helve,  which  is  of  wood,  the  entire  hammer  is  constructed 
of  iron  and  steel,  so  proportioned  as  to  dispose  of  the  material 
to  the  best  possible  advantage.  The  helve  is  hung  upon  two 
hardened  adjustable  steel  centres  and  almost  perfectly  balanced, 
motion  being  given  to  it  by  a  broad  eccentric  with  an  iron  hub, 
a  bronze  shell  and  a  cast-steel  strap,  all  so  perfectly  fitted  as  to  reduce 
friction  to  a  minimum  and  to  allow  complete  adjustment.  Rubber 
cushions  are  provided  and  so  arranged  as  to  absorb  the  concussion 
of  the  blow  of  the  hammer  and  materially  decrease  the  strain  and 
jar  which  ordinarily  obtains.  Set  screws  in  the  upper  and  lower 
sockets  of  the  oscillator  allow  of  adjustment  to  these  cushions. 
The  bearings  throughout  are  of  the  best  quality  anti-friction  metal, 
except  those  of  the  main  shaft,  which  are  of  bronze;  an  adjustable 
eccentric  is  used,  easily  regulating  the  length  of  stroke  required, 
and  a  universal  joint  connection  prevents  the  possibility  of  binding 
or  heating.  By  the  method  adopted  of  raising  and  lowering  the 
husk,  dies  varying  an  inck  in  thickness  may  be  used  without 
shimming  up  either  end,  thus  preserving  the  key-ways  and  hammer 
bolts.  In  securing  the  hammer-head  to  the  helve,  rubber  cushions 
are  used  beneath  the  nuts  and  collars  of  the  bolts,  absorbing  all 
concussion,  preventing  loosening  or  breakage  and  increasing  the 
elasticity  and  flexibility  of  the  blow.  A  foot  treadle  around  the 
bed  of  the  hammer  allows  the  operator  to  stand  in  front  on  either 
side  and  by  a  gentle  pressure  bring  the  tightener  in  connection 
with  the  belt  on  the  drive-pulley,  varying  the  stroke  as  desired. 


MA  CHINE RY  HALL.  385 

On  removing  the  pressure,  the  brake  acts  at  once  on  the  balance- 
wheel  and  the  hammer  is  brought  to  a  stop  instantly,  with  the 
helve  always  up.  The  action  is  the  nearest  approach  to  that  of 
the  human  arm  that  it  seems  possible  to  obtain,  being  accurate 
and  powerful,  perfectly  adjustable  in  length  of  stroke,  rapidity  of 
motion  and  weight  or  force  of  blow,  and  entirely  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  operator.  Water,  steam,  or  any  other  power  may 
be-  applied. 

It  is  claimed  that  not  more  than  half  the  power  is  required 
to  do  a  given  amount  of  work  that  is  necessary  in  the  direct 
steam  hammer.  There  is  no  liability  to  corrosion  of  steam  chest, 
sticking  of  valves  or  freezing  and  bursting  of  pipes  in  winter  from 
non-use.  For  intermittent  use  it  is  exceedingly  well  adapted, 
always  responding  to  the  touch  of  the  treadle,  be  it  once  per 
day  or  once  per  week.  Its  drawing  capacity  and  accuracy  of 
stroke  give  it  great  advantages  over  the  vertical  or  dead-stroke 
hammer.  The  play  required  in  the  guides  or  ways  of  the  latter 
for  expansion  of  the  ram  under  heating,  allowing  it  to  run  loose 
enough  to  shuckle,  is  fatal  to  nice  die  swedging.  In  this  hammer, 
the  centres  being  away  from  all  heat,  it  strikes  equally  well  whether 
the  heat  is  expanded  or  not.  It  is  claimed  that  as  a  drawing 
hammer  it  has  no  superior,  and  it  is  under  such  perfect  control 
that  a  block  of  iron  three  inches  square  may  be  reduced  to  one- 
eighth  inch  square  under  the  one  hundred  pound  hammer  without 
adjustment.  A  simple  device  allows  adjustment  from  one  power 
to  another,  as  from  a  sixty  pound  to  a  forty  pound  hammer,  in  a 
few  minutes.  It  is  claimed  that  no  hammer  in  use  possesses  the 
elasticity  of  stroke  which  this  does.  Objection  is  sometimes 
made  to  helve-hammers  because  they  do  not  strike  perfectly 
square  on  different  thicknesses  of  work,  but  this  is  obviated  in  the 
construction  of  the  dies,  and  in  swedging  it  gives  no  trouble. 

A  certain  class  of  machines  technically  known  as  Milling 
Machines  have  long  be  used  in  a  somewhat  crude  state  for  a  few 
special  kinds  of  work,  such  as  in  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms 
and  sewing-machines,  where  the  cheap  and  rapid  duplication  of 


386 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


interchangeable  parts  was  impossible  with  any  other  form  of 
apparatus.  The  name  arose  from  the  kind  of  cutting  tool  employed, 
specifically  known  as  a  mill  and  consisting  of  a  revolving  wheel 
on  the  periphery  of  which  the  cutters  are  arranged  like  cogs  to 


•The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


MILLING  MACHINE. 

By  the  Brainarti  Machine  Co. 


{Machinery  Hall. 


a  mill-wheel,  the  action  of  the  machine  being  directly  the  reverse 
of  that  in  the  lathe,  the  tool  revolving  on  the  work  instead  of 
the  work  on  the  tool. 

When  attempts  were  made  to  apply  these  machines  to  general 
work,    defects    were    revealed    so    marked    as    to    preclude    their 


MACHINERY  HALL.  387 

employment  except  in  few  cases.  This  led  to  important  improve- 
ments and  developments  on  the  old  tyjpe,  until  of  late  years 
their  capabilities  have  been  largely  extended  and  much  more 
generally  understood,  and  their  use  has  grown  rapidly  in  favor 
especially  in  the  United  States,  and  has  become  a  necessity  in 
almost  every  metal-working  establishment. 

The  Brainard  Milling  Machine  Company  and  its  General  Super- 
intendent, Mr.  Amos  H.  Brainard,  with  whom  the  subject  has  been 
a  special  study  for  many  years,  claim  considerable  credit  for  the 
improvements  that  have  been  effected  and  for  the  introduction  of 
machines  for  general  use,  combining  the  requisite  of  capacity, 
convenience  and  power,  together  with  beauty  of  design  and  per- 
fection of  workmanship.  This  Company  manufactures  Milling 
Machines  exclusively,  of  various  classes,  and  makes  quite  an 
extensive  display  in  the  Machinery  Hall.  What  is  known  as  its 
Standard  Universal  Milling  Machine,  holds  the  first  position  in 
importance  among  all  the  varieties  produced,  having  all  the  move- 
ments and  power  of  the  plainer  machines,  with  far  greater  range 
and  capacity,  and  being  applicable  to  an  almost  endless  variety  of 
work  quite  impossible  with  ordinary  machines.  Four  different  sizes 
of  this  class  are  made,  all  upon  the  same  general  plan,  and  we 
select  for  illustration  the  third,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  desirable 
for  ordinary  use,  its  weight,  capacity  and  power  being  sufficient 
for  general  and  quite  heavy  work  without  its  being  too  large  for 
quick  handling  and  rapid  running. 

The  engraving  on  page  386  is  taken  from  a  photograph  of 
the  machine  as  it  stands  at  the  exhibition,  set  for  cutting  a  long, 
conical  blank,  spirally  and  automatically,  an  operation  considered 
one  of  the  most  difficult  and  complicated  ever  required  of  a 
Milling  Machine,  and  necessitating  the  use  of  a  special  mechanism. 
Its  framing  consists  of  a  large  square  or  four  sided  column,  fixed 
on  an  ample  base,  upon  the  front  of  which  is  mounted  a  knee, 
which  may  be  elevated  or  depressed  by  a  screw  worked  by 
bevel-gearing -and  a  crank;  a  dial  and  finger  attached,  allowing 
of  adjustment  to  the  one-thousandth  part  of  an  inch.  The  knee 


388  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


supports  a  carriage  which  traverses  upon  it,  and  on  the  carriage 
is  mounted  a  work-table,  moving  independently  and  having  T 
shaped  slots  on  its  upper  face,  carefully  milled  lengthwise  and 
crosswise,  exactly  in  line  with  and  at  right  angles  to  the  feed, 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  work.  The  table  also  has  an  oil 
channel  entirely  around  it.  Upon  the  top  of  the  column  is  the 
driving  cone,  full  geared,  giving  six  speeds.  The  main  arbor  or 
spindle  is  of  solid  forged  steel,  and  upon  its  front  end  a  screw 
is  cut  so  that  a  chuck  or  face  plate  may  be  attached.  At  the 
extreme  top  is  a  projecting  arm  which  carries  an  outside  centre 
support  for  the  outer  end  of  a  mill  spindle,  allowing  the  use  of 
cutters  to  a  distance  of  fourteen  inches  from  the  front  of  the 
machine.  This  arm,  notwithstanding  its  solid  connection,  can  be 
easily  removed  when  not  required,  or  if  desired  to  make  other 
attachments.  Automatic  feed  gearing  is  provided  which  is  hung 
upon  the  back  end  of  the  spindle,  connecting  with  a  worm  and 
worm  gear  which  drives  the  feed-screw.  The  feed  work  is  inde- 
pendent of  any  movement  of  knee,  carriage  or  table,  and  provision 
is  made,  especially  in  the  feed  work,  for  wear  of  running  parts 
and  for  taking  up  all  slack  motion.  The  feed-screw  runs  in  bronze 
bushings,  and  bronze  collars  are  interposed  between  running  bearings 
to  obviate  wear  and  diminish  friction.  The  spiral  cutter,  as  shown, 
cuts  a  right-hand  spiral,  but  a  simple  change  of  gearing  causes 
it  to  cut  a  reverse  or  left-hand  spiral,  and  both  were  cut  upon 
the  same  piece  of  metal  in  the  presence  of  visitors.  Upon 
loosening  three  nuts  the  spiral  cutting  attachment  may  be  removed, 
leaving  the  work-table  flush  and  unobstructed.  Various  attachments 
are  provided,  such  as  a  universal  head,  by  which  spur  and  bevel 
gears  can  be  cut,  and  work  milled  at  any  angle  or  position; 
a  rotary  vise  and  many  other  devices,  allowing  an  almost  endless 
variety  of  work  to  be  performed;  fluting  taps  and  seamers, 
finishing  nuts  and  bolt  heads,  key-seating  shafting,  making  all  the 
cutters  required  for  the  machine,  &c.  Even  without  any  of  the 
special  attachments  the  machine  is  admirably  adapted  for  plain 
milling,  and  is  in  every  respect  far  in  advance  of  the  common 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  389 

style  of  machine.  As  it  appears  in  the  engraving  it  weighs  about 
1800  pounds,  has  a  perpendicular  range  of  1 8  inches;  the  carriage 
will  traverse  5  inches,  and  the  work-table  has  a  movement  of 
1 8  inches  upon  the  carriage.  The  feed  may  be  operated  by  hand 
from  either  end,  or  automatically,  as  desired.  A  door  is  provided 
in  one  side  of  the  main  standard  which  being  hollow,  furnishes 
an  ample  tool  closet. 

Messrs.  Fauth  &  Co.,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  exhibit  in  the 
Main  Building  some  excellent  Astronomical  and  Geodetic  Apparatus, 
among  which  we  would  mention  particularly  a  fine  Equatorial 
Telescope,  which,  although  smaller  than  many  others  in  use,  is  of 
a  size  best  adapted  for  working  under  all  circumstances,  and 
belongs  to  that  class  of  instruments  by  means  of  which  with 
patient  labor  many  of  the  best  results  in  astronomical  research 
have  been  achieved.  The  engraving  on  page  390  gives  a  very 
fair  idea  of  the  instrument.  It  has  a  clear  aperture  of  nearly 
seven  inches,  a  focal  length  of  eight  feet,  and  the  lens  was 
manufactured  by  Alvin  Clarke  &  Sons,  the  celebrated  opticians  of 
Boston,  Massachusetts.  It  is  mounted  on  a  pedestal  which  accom- 
panies it,  and  very  little  expense  is  requisite  to  place  it  in  working 
position, — a  matter  of  considerable  importance  to  those  of  limited 
means.  Azimuth  and  latitude  adjustment  have  been  provided, 
allowing  it  to  be  regulated  for  almost  any  quarter  of  the  globe, 
thus  permitting  great  range  of  locality  in  its  use.  The  great 
care  that  has  been  taken  in  designing  the  instrument,  and  the 
close  attention  that  has  been  paid  to  the  comforts  and  conveniences 
of  the  observer — giving  him  a  perfect  control  over  the  whole 
machinery  without  compelling  him  to  move  from  the  eye-piece, 
thereby  dispensing  with  the  aid  of  an  assistant — is  one  of  the  marked 
features  of  the  apparatus.  It  can  be  turned  to  any  quarter  of 
the  heavens  with  the  greatest  ease,  and  the  operator  without 
leaving  his  post,  may  readily  move  it  in  declination  and  right 
ascension  to  find  the  object  he  is  seeking.  Motion  is  given  by 
clock-work,  with  which  it  may  be  connected  or  disconnected  at 
will,  and  the  clock  may  be  adjusted  to  follow  stars,  planets  or 


39° 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  moon  with  the  utmost  precision.     The  hour  circle  reads  to  single 
seconds  of  time  and  the  declination  circle  to  five  seconds  of  space, 


EQUATORIAL  TELESCOPE. 

By  Messrs.  Fauth  &•  Co. 


two  opposite  verniers  being  used  to  each  circle  with  lenses  attached 
for   reading.      The   position   micrometer  is  a  wonderfully  accurate 


MA  CHINER Y  HALL.  391 


piece  of  workmanship,  combining  in  itself  four  distinct  motions, 
and  is  especially  adapted  to  measure  minute  differences  of  declination 
and  positions  of  double  stars.  One  division  of  the  micrometer  screw 
is  equal  to  one  ten-thousandth  part  of  an  inch.  The  attached 
circle  permits  angles  of  position  to  be  read  off  to  single  minutes. 
The  field  of  the  instrument  can  be  illuminated  at  pleasure  with 
different  colored  light,  as  some  stars  show  best  this  way,  or  it 
may  be -left  dark  for  very  faint  objects  and  only  the  spider  lines 
illuminated.  Messrs.  Fauth  &  Co.  have  made  every  endeavor  to 
bring  the  construction  of  this  instrument  to  perfection,  as  regards 
symmetry  of  form,  kind  of  material  employed,  and  style  of 
workmanship,  and  inspection  shows  that  their  efforts  have  been 
crowned  with  success. 

Among  the  large  type-foundries  in  the  United  States,  that  of 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan,  of  Philadelphia,  occupies  the  first  posi- 
tion, and  is  well  represented  by  an  extensive  display  in  Machinery 
Hall.  This  firm  exhibits  a  number  of  modern  type-casting  machines, 
which  may  be  operated  by  hand  or  power.  These  machines  are  con- 
structed upon  the  same  principle  (whether  operated  by  hand-  or 
steam-power),  and  their  average  production  is  about  one  hundred 
per  minute  for  the  ordinary  sizes  of  printing-type,  being  far  beyond 
the  amount  of  product  of  the  earlier  methods.  The  advantage  in 
using  power  is  that  it  enables  one  rrfan  to  attend  to  two  machines. 
Our  illustration  on  page  392  shows  a  machine  with  steam  attachment. 

Type-metal  is  an  amalgam  of  lead,  antimony,  copper  and  tin  in 
such  proportions  as  to  produce  a  material  hard  but  not  brittle,  ductile 
yet  tough,  flowing  freely  yet  hardening  quickly.  Each  letter  is  first 
cut  in  reverse  shape  on  the  end  of  a  short  strip  of  steel,  the  greatest 
care  being  taken  to  insure  accuracy  of  proportion  and  harmony  of 
appearance  in  the  letters  of  the  entire  alphabet.  The  least  variation 
is  inadmissible,  as  it  would  destroy  the  harmonious  effect  of  the 
types  when  composed  or  formed  into  columns  or  pages.  The  steel 
strips  when  finished  are  termed  punches;  and  after  criticism  and 
approval,  each  punch  is  placed  in  a  stamping-machine,  and  a  deep 
impression  made  of  it  in  one  side  of  an  oblong  piece  of  copper  near 


392 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION, 


'The  Grtat  Kxhibition,  ,876."\  STEAM   TYPE-CASTING   MACHINE.  \Machinery  Hatt. 

Jiy  MatKtllar,  Smiths  &•  Jordan,  Philadelphia. 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


393 


its  end.  These  pieces  of  copper  are  called  matrices.  They  are  dressed 
and  fitted  up  with  delicate  skill,  so  that  the  types  cast  from  them 
shall  be  of  uniform  height  and  accurate  range.  They  are  then  ready 
for  use  in  the  casting-machine. 

The  machine  casts  but  one  type  at  each  revolution.  It  consists 
of  a  furnace,  on  the  top  of  which  is  a  small  reservoir  of  metal  kept  in 
a  fluid  state.  In  this  reservoir  is  a  pump,  the  plunger  of  which  ope- 
rates in  a  cylinder  in  the  bottom,  and  projects  at  each  stroke  a  small 
quantity  of  the  molten  metal  out  from  a  small  hole  in  a. spout  or 
nipple  in  the  front  face.  The  mould  in  which  the  stem  or  body  of 
the  type  is  formed  is  of  steel  and  is  movable,  being  set  in  place  in 
front  of  the  reservoir  and  worked  by  the  action  of  the  same 
machinery  which  operates  the  pump.  The  copper  matrix,  containing 
any  special  letter  stamped  into  it  with  the  punch,  rests  with  its  face 
against  the  bottom  opening  of  the  mould,  being  held  in  position  by 
a  curved  steel  spring  shown  in  the  engraving.  The  method  of  ope- 
ration is  as  follows :  The  initial  movement  of  the  machine  brings  the 
upper  opening  in  the  mould  opposite  to  the  matrix  exactly  against 
the  hole  in  the  nipple.  A  simultaneous  action  of  the  pump  projects 
a  stream  of  the  liquid  metal  into  the  mould  with  considerable  force, 
at  the  same  time  stopping  the  opening  in  the  nipple  by  a  small  plug 
from  behind  to  prevent  the  further  escape  of  metal.  The  next  move- 
ment draws  the  mould  away  from  the  nipple  and  opens  it,  throwing 
back  the  matrix,  extricating  the  type  and  dropping  it  by  a  slide  into  a 
box  below.  This  operation  is  repeated  over  and  over  again  as 
rapidly  as  the  crank  or  wheel  of  the  machine  is  turned,  and  a  type  is 
cast  each  time.  On  the  rapidity  of  the  motion  depends  the  quantity 
produced.  Such  is  the  modern  type-casting  machine — turning  out 
one  hundred  types  per  minute,  or  sixty  thousand  per  working-day  of 
ten  hours,  every  one  of  which  is  a  mite  contributed  to  the  spreading 
of  knowledge  over  the  world  for  good  or  for  evil. 

The  type  as  thus  formed  is  passed  to  boys,  who  break  off  the  jets 
or  waste  ends ;  then  to  the  dressing-room,  where  the  rough  edges  are 
rubbed  off  on  the  faces  of  large  circular  stones;  and  finally,  they  are 
set  up  in  lines,  slipped  into  a  long  stick,  screwed  tight,  and  the 


394  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

bottom' of  the  type  is  neatly  grooved  by  a  planing-tool.  The  letters 
are  afterward  closely  inspected  with  a  magnifying-glass,  and  all 
imperfect  ones  rejected. 

The  exhibit  of  this  firm  is  exceedingly  well  arranged,  evincing 
great  taste  and  a  considerate  regard  for  the  interests  of  visitors,  by 
showing  them  not  only  the  modern  type-machines  themselves,  but 
the  various  adjuncts  of  their  establishment,  as  well  as  the  tools  used 
by  this  house  in  the  last  century.  The  exceptional  excellence  of 
their  type  is  proved  by  the  handsome  appearance  of  our  book,  which 
is  printed  from  them.  Cases  are  also  displayed  containing  type — the 
smallest  not  thicker  than  a  pin — ancient  and  modern,  plain  and 
highly  ornamented,  and  exquisite  borders,  crochet  and  music  type, 
and  numerous  other  essential  matters  for  printers'  use.  These  are 
all  shown  in  their  two  magnificent  Specimen  Books,  also  on  exhi- 
bition, which  are  printed  in  the  highest  style  of  typography;  the 
matter  of  the  lines  displaying  the  types  being  original  and  exceed- 
ingly quaint,  these  remarkable  volumes  have  no  counterpart  in  the 
world.  This  foundry  is  the  oldest  in  America,  having  been  estab- 
lished in  1796  by  Binny  &  Ronaldson,  and  claims  to  be  the  most 
complete  in  the  world. 

Messrs.  Aveling  &  Porter,  of  Rochester,  England,  well  known  as 
occupying  a  high  position  in  the  specialty  of  Locomotives  applicable 
to  common  roads,  to  agricultural  purposes,  to  road  rollers,  etc.,  make 
a  very  creditable  exhibit  in  the  British  Department  of  the  Machinery 
Hall.  One  of  their  latest  improvements,  and  an  exceedingly  important 
one  in  this  class  of  machines,  consists  in  their  method  of  mounting 
the  principal  working  parts  of  the  locomotive,  the  crank-shaft,  the 
counter-shaft  and  the  driving  axle,  so  as  to  prevent  the  unequal 
working  of  these  parts  from  producing  any  injurious  strain  upon  the 
boiler,  a  defect  that  has  long  been  a  fertile  source  of  trouble  in  all 
engines  of  this  kind.  This  is  accomplished  by  prolonging  the  side 
plates  of  the  fire-box  upwards,  as  will  readily  be  seen  by  the 
engraving  on  the  next  page,  thus  forming  a  complete  arrangement 
for  carrying  the  bearings  of  these  working  parts  without  connecting 
with  the  boiler  directly.  Many  other  improvements  have  been  made 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


395 


in  these  machines  from  time  to  time,  and  they  may  be  regarded  as  pos- 
sessing great  simplicity,  strength,  durability  and  economy  of  working. 


In  the  "Road  Locomotive  Engine,"  a  single  cylinder  is  used  and 
it  is  placed  on  the  forward  part  of  the  boiler,  preventing  priming, 
dispensing  with  steam-pipes  and  resulting  in  considerable  economy 


396 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


of  fuel.     This  cylinder  is  surrounded  by  a  jacket,  with  which  it  is  in 
direct  communication,  and  the  steam  is  taken  into  it  from  a  dome 


connected  with  the  jacket.  The  driving-wheels  are  of  wrought-iron, 
provided  with  compensation  motion,  so  as  to  allow  the  turning  of 
sharp  curves  without  disconnecting  either  wheel  and  sustain  about  85 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL.  39  7 

per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  engine.  The  steering  is  done  from  the 
foot-plate. 

It  is  stated  that  the  working  expenses  vary  from  2^  to  6  per 
cent,  per  ton  per  mile,  depending  upon  whether  the  work  is  con- 
tinuous or  intermittent  and  the  condition  of  the  roads  travelled  over. 
Whenever  circumstances  render  the  use  of  the  ordinary  rigid  tires 
objectionable,  the  wheels  are  fitted  with  the  spring  tires  of  W. 
Bridges  Adams,  consisting  of  inner  and  outer  tire-frames,  having 
solid  blocks  of  India-rubber  between  them,  and  connected  together 
by  a  "  drag-link,"  to  prevent  friction  on  the  rubber  blocks. 

Cranes  are  attached  to  the  front  of  these  engines  when  desired, 
very  much  increasing  their  usefulness  in  dock-yards,  quarries,  etc., 
and  those  visiting  the  Exhibition  Grounds  during  the  moving  and 
placing  of  the  exhibits  have  no  doubt  noticed  the  effective  work  per- 
formed by  one  of  these  machines  in  use  by  the  British  Commission. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  "Agricultural  Locomotive"  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  "  Road  Locomotive,"  and  this  apparatus 
is  expressly  adapted  to  the  working  of  machines  for  steam  cultiva- 
tion, threshing,  sawing,  pumping,  or  other  agricultural  duty. 

During  the  early  years  of  railway  management,  when  traffic 
was  light  and  the  number  of  trains  few,  a  very  simple  system  of 
signals  was  quite  sufficient  for  the  proper  regulation  of  these 
trains.  Hand  signals,  with  flags  by  day  and  lamps  by  night — 
different  colors  being  employed,  red  generally  for  danger,  blue  or 
green  for  caution,  and  white  for  safety — answered  all  purposes. 
As  business  developed,  however,  and  as  the  turnouts  and  crossings 
at  stations  increased  in  complication,  it  became  evident  that  some- 
thing better  than  these  primitive  methods  must  be  adopted.  Station- 
ary signals  were  then  introduced,  elevated  at  some  height  above  the 
level  of  the  rails,  so  as  to  be  seen  from  a  considerable  distance, 
and  they  were  placed  at  safety  or  danger  as  required  to  correspond 
with  the  clearing  or  blocking  of  the  line.  That  known  as  the 
Semaphore  signal,  consisting  of  a  vertical  post  with  a  movable  arm 
attached  near  the  top  by  a  pivot,  and  capable  of  hanging  vertically 
or  of  being  moved  out  at  right  angles  to  the  post,  was  the  form 


398 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


ScmajnJior 
Jirm. 


of  signal  most  universally  adopted,  proving  so  superior  to  all  other 
kinds  as  to  rapidly  replace  them.     When  the  arm  was  thrown  out 
at  right  angles  to  the  post,  it  signified  danger;  when  hanging  ver- 
tically, it  denoted  safety;    and  when  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  it  expressed  j 

caution.  The  movable  arm  was  counter- 
weighted,  so  that  in  case  of  derangement  of 
the  apparatus  or  breakage  of  connections,  it 
always  flew  out  to  "Danger,"  stopping  all 
traffic,  and  at  the  worst 
only  causing  delay.  As 
the  system  of  tracks 
became  still  more  com- 
plicated, arms  were  in- 
troduced on  both  sides 
of  the  post,  and  occa- 
sionally two  or  more 
tiers  of  arms,  one  above 
the  other,  the  arms  on 
one  side  always  referring 
to  trains  in  one  direction, 
and  those  on  the  other 
side  to  trains  in  the  other 
direction.  The  arms  were  painted  red  on 
the  •  side  next  to  the  approaching  trains 
they  were  intended  to  govern,  and  white 
on  the  other  side,  so  as  to  appear  less 
prominent  and  avoid  confusion.  Lamps  were 
attached  to  the  post  for  night  use,  the 
movement  of  red  or  green  glass  over  the 
white  glass  indicating  the  desired  signals. 
Where  several  arms  were  in  use  it  became  necessary  to 
number  them  or  mark  them  with  symbols  so  as  to  distinguish 
them  apart  and  signify  to  which  set  of  tracks  each  signal 
belonged. 


RAILWAY  SIGNALS. 


RAILWAY  SIGNALS. 

Fif.  2. 


MA CHINER Y  HALL.  399 

The  Semaphore  signal  was  found  eminently  satisfactory,  con- 
tinuing in  use  to  the  present  day,  but  the  method  of  operating 
it  was  quite  inefficient.  By  errors  of  the  signal-men,  signals 
were  sometimes  given  for  wrong  tracks,  or  switches  were  opened 
before  the  danger  signal  was  turned  on,  or  sometimes  the  danger 
signal  changed  to  safety  before  the  switches  were  set  right, 
resulting  often  in  cases  of  serious  accident.  The  obvious  remedy 
for  this  was  to  make  the  movement  of  the  signal  automatic 
with  the  movement  of  the  switch,  or,  better  still,  to  make  the 
movement  of  the  danger  signals  obligatory  before  the  track 
cqyld  be  blocked,  or  the  clearing  of  the  track  obligatory  before 
the  safety  signals  could  be  set.  The  solution  of  this  problem, 
step  by  step,  has  resulted  in  a  system  of  apparatus  so  complete 
as  to  leave  little  if  anything  to  be  desired. 

Messrs.  Saxby  &  Farmer,  of  London  and  Brussels,  have  been 
early  and  strongly  identified  with  this  system,  taking  out  patents 
in  England  as  long  ago  as  1856,  and  in  this  country  in  1868. 
They  are  represented  by  an  exceedingly  handsome  and  complete 
working  model  at  the  Exhibition,  and  we  cannot  explain  better 
the  latest  and  most  novel  improvements  in  this  direction  than  by 
a  description  of  their  apparatus. 

On  the  preceding  page  we  present  an  engraving,  Fig.  I,  showing 
the  Semaphore  signal,  and  also  one  of  the  Semaphore  with  slotted 
rod,  Fig.  2.  It  is  exceedingly  desirable  in  certain  cases  that  two 
signal-men  should  control  one  signal,  so  that  the  consent  of  both 
should  be  necessary  to  jts  use.  This  is  arranged  in  a  simple 
manner  by  means  of  two  slots  on  the  signal-rod,  in  which  pivoted 
levers  move  up  and  down,  each  being  operated  by  a  separate  signal- 
man. It  is  evident  that  both  levers  must  be  moved  the  same  way 
before  any  change  can  be  effected  in  the  signal,  and  that  such 
change  must  be  in  concordance  with  the  intentions  of  both 
operators.  This  principle,  which  is  capable  of  almost  unlimited 
extension,  and  allows  any  number  of  slots,  in  which  a  pointed 
lever  or  pin  may  work,  was  the  germ  of  the  system  introduced 
by  Mr.  Saxby,  in  1856,  in  his  invention  of  combined  interlocking 


400 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


MA  CHINER J '  HA  LL.  401 

signals,  by  which  it  was  rendered  mechanically  impossible  to  make  the 
position  of  the  switches  contradictory  to  the  position  of  the  signals, 
or  to  allow  irreconcilable  signals  to  be  given,  no  matter  how 
complicated  the  system  of  tracks  or  switches. 

In  arranging  a  Saxby  &  Farmer  apparatus  at  any  particular 
station  or  junction,  a  convenient  site  is  selected,  on  which  is  erected 
a  signal-tower,  or  building  with  a  second  story,  having  large 
windows,  and  well  overlooking  the  arrangement  of  tracks.  In  this 
is  placed  a  set  of  levers,  arranged  in  a  cast-iron  frame  side  by  side, 
and  by  which  the  whole  system  of  signals  and  switches  is  operated. 
Some  work  the  switches  and  others  the  signals,  the  former  by 
rod  connections,  and  the  latter  usually  by  wire  rope. 

Fig.  3  shows  this  arrangement  of  levers  for  some  particular 
station,  the  name  generally  given  to  it  being  the  "  Locking 
Apparatus,"  for  the  reason  that  the  levers  are  so  interlocked  that 
the  switches  must  be  properly  set  and  locked  in  the  right  direction 
before  it  is  possible  to  move  the  signal-lever  corresponding,  and 
the  signals  themselves  are  so  interlocked,  so  as  to  protect  the 
path  of  a  signal  train,  throughout  its  whole  length,  from  all 
crossing  lines.  It  will  be  noticed  that  each  lever  is  numbered, 
and  that  some  have  one  or  more  secondary  numbers  under  the 
principal  number.  These  numbers  are  to  guide  the  operator,  and 
the  secondary  numbers  specify  the  levers  which  control  the  prin- 
cipal lever,  and  which  must  be  moved  before  any  movement  of 
the  principal  can  be  made.  For  instance,  suppose  lever  No.  u, 
having  under  it  secondary  No.  7,  operates  a  certain  switch.  Before 
it  is  possible  to  use  it,  lever  No.  7  must  1>e  moved,  acting  on 
the  danger  signal,  and  covering  the  opening  of  this  switch  by 
No.  ii.  It  is  evident  that  with  this  system  it  is  impossible  to 
make  a  mistake  causing  any  further  inconvenience  to  an  approaching 
train  than  possible  delay. 

In  describing  the  method  by  which  this  locking  is  accomplished, 
we  will  refer  to  Fig.  4,  and  we  would  state  that  an  important 
advantage  belongs  to  this  apparatus  in  the  fact  that  the  interlocking 
gear  is  actuated  solely  by  the  movement  of  the  spring  catch-rod 


402 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


in  front  of  the  lever  and  attached  to  it.  This  spring  catch-rod 
carries  a  stud,  upon  which  is  a  small  block,  B,  which  travels  in 
the  curved  slot  of  the  rocker,  D,  a  segmental  plate,  movable  on 


SYSTEM  OF  RAILWAY  SIGNALS.     FIG.  4. 

By  Saxby  &  Farmer. 


the  centre,  A.  When  the  lever  is  thrown  forward  or  backward 
to  its  full  position,  the  spring  catch  fits  into  a  notch  in  the  fixed 
quadrant  on  which  it  moves.  When  it  is  in  its  forward  or  normal 


MACHINERY  HALL.  403 

position,  to  the  front  of  the  frame,  with  the  spring  catch-rod 
down,  the  left-hand  end  of  the  rocker  is  depressed,  and  the  right- 
hand  end  raised,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  When  the  spring 
catch-rod  is  raised,  the  rocker  moves  into  the  position  shown  by 
full  lines,  and  keeps  this  position  until  the  spring  catch  falls  into 
the  notch  at  the  rear  of  the  frame,  when  it  assumes  a  third  position, 
elevated  on  the  left  and  depressed  on  the  right.  A  jaw  at  the 
left-hand  end  of  the  rocker  carries  a  universal  jointed  vertical 
link,  E,  giving  motion  to  a  small  crank  at  the  end  of  a  spindle, 
the  bearings  of  which  are  shown  at  G,  G,  there  being  a  spindle 
for  each  lever.  These  spindles  lie  directly  under  a  series  of 
horizontal  rectangular  bars,  shown  at  D,  D,  in  Fig.  3,  called  locking- 
bars,  and  to  these  are  attached  pieces  of  iron,  E,  E,  Fig.  3,  or 
L,  L,  Fig.  4,  called  locks. 

The  spindles  are  flat  in  their  central  portion,  as  shown  at  M 
and  N,  Fig.  4,  and  when  they  stand  in  their  normal  position  they  are 
horizontal,  and  the  locking-bars  and  locks  are  free  to  move  forward 
and  back  over  them.  When  turned  up,  however,  out  of  the  hori- 
zontal, as  shown  at  I,  and  in  dotted  lines  at  M,  they  catch  on 
the  locks  and  stop  their  movement  and  that  of  the  bars  to  which 
they  are  attached.  Some  of  the  spindles  are  required  to  work 
locking-bars,  and  are  provided  with  a  short  vertical  crank,  the  stud  of 
which  works  between  two  horns  on  the  locking-bar,  as  shown  at  K, 
giving  a  horizontal  motion  to  the  bar  at  any  movement  of  the  spindle. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  locks  and  crank  attachments  may  be 
fixed  at  any  locations  desired  on  the  locking-bars,  by  means  of 
set  screws  or  a  similar  arrangement,  some  being  made  to  allow 
free  movement  of  one  spindle,  as  at  M,  while  at  the  same  time 
another  spindle,  as  at  N,  is  locked. 

Whenever  the  spring  catch  of  any  lever  is  raised,  its  rocker  is 
lifted  and  the  corresponding  spindle  turned.  If  the  spindle  is 
locked  it  will  be  impossible  to  move  the  spring  catch.  A  very 
small  movement  of  the  spring  catch,  if  the  spindle  is  free,  will 
cant  it  up  sufficiently  to  lock  the  locking-bar  upon  which  it  works 
and  prevent  any  movement  of  it  by  other  levers. 


404 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  spindle  can  occupy  three  positions,  as  shown  at  M:  first 
the  horizontal,  when  the  lever  is  in  its  normal  position;  second, 
slightly  inclined,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines,  when  the  lever  is  being 
moved;  and  third,  a  more  inclined  position,  also  shown  dotted, 
when  the  lever  has  been  pulled  to  its  full  open  position  and  the 
spring  catch  released. 

The  third  position  is  a  very  important  one,  some  of  the  locks 
not  being  released  until  this  position  is  attained.  ^Thus  the  spindle 
N  is  not  released  until  that  at  O  is  in  the  third  position,  and  the 
lock  over  it  has  moved  sufficiently  to  be  able  to  enter  a  hole  in 


SYSTEM  OF  RAILWAY  SIGNALS.     FIG.  5. 
By  Saxby  &  Farmer. 


it.  The  spindle  then  by  its  new  position  prevents  a  return  move- 
ment of  the  lock  or  any  change  of  the  spindle  O  until  brought 
back  to  the  horizontal  again,  corresponding  to  the  lowering  of 
the  spring  catch  into  the  forward  notch  of  the  quadrant.  By  this 
interlocking  apparatus  it  is  possible  to  absolutely  prevent  any  signal- 
man from  even  commencing  to  make  a  movement  of  either  switches 
or  signals  until  all  switches  or  signals  which  have  any  relation  to 
the  movement  intended  to  be  made  have  been  effectually  locked 
in  their  proper  positions,  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance. 

By  the  system  here  explained  it  may  readily  be  understood  that 
any   combination  or   arrangement  of    interlocking   different   levers 


MACHINERY  HALL.  405 

may  be  made  as  desired,  that  changes  can  be  made  to  accom- 
modate alterations  to  tracks  or  switches  by  merely  moving  the 
positions  of  the  locks,  and  also  that  extensions  of  the  apparatus 
can  be  economically  effected  to  suit  extensions  of  business  without 
throwing  away  the  portion  already  in  use. 

Messrs.  Saxby  &  Farmer  also  provide  a  "Patent  Facing  Point 
Lock,"  which  insures  that  the  switches  shall  be  properly  closed 
and  locked  before  a  train  can  be  signaled  over  them,  and  also 
prevents  the  possibility  of  the  switchman  moving  the  switches  while 
the  train  is  passing.  This  apparatus,  shown  by  Fig.  5,  is  worked  by 
a  lever  in  the  "locking  apparatus,"  and  the  interlocking  of  the  levers 
forces  the  switchman  to  use  this  lock  before  giving  the  signal.  A 
cross-rod  connects  the  two  switch-rails  near  their  movable  ends,  and 
in  this  are  two  holes,  so  that  the  switch  may  be  locked  for  either 
position.  A  taper  bolt  shoots  into  one  or  the  other  of  these  holes, 
bringing  the  apparatus  up  home,  and  keeping  it  snug  and  tight. 
If  the  switches  are  not  properly  closed,  the  bolt  will  not  enter  the 
hole,  and  the  facing  switch  lock  lever  in  the  apparatus  will  not 
work,  and  will  consequently  prevent  the  safety  signal  being  given. 

In  order  to  prevent  any  danger  of  a  signal-man  carelessly 
moving  the  switch-rails  while  a  train  is  passing  over  them,  a 
switch  locking-bar  is  provided,  consisting  of  a  bar  at  least  as  long  as 
the  greatest  distance  between  any  two  pairs  of  wheels  of  a  car,  placed 
on  the  inner  side  of  one  of  the  fixed  rails  immediately  adjoining 
the  switch-rail,  and  connected  with  the  system  by  which  the  lock- 
bolt  just  described  is  worked.  It  is  hinged  on  short  links  lying 
in  a  vertical  plane,  so  that  it  cannot  be  moved  lengthwise  without 
at  the  same  time  being  raised.  Then  the  lock-bolt  is  at  either  end 
of  its  stroke,  the  bar  is  at  its  lowest  level,  and  just  allows  the 
flanges  of  the  wheels  to  pass  over  its  length.  When  an  attempt 
is  made  to  move  the  lock-bolt  for  either  of  its  extreme  positions, 
the  switchman  is  unable  to  do  so  without  raising  the  bar,  which 
cannot  be  done  so  long  as  the  cars  are  passing  over  it. 

We  have  before  mentioned  the  great  advantages  resulting  from 
the  use  of  slotted  signal-rods,  rendering  it  impossible  for  disagree- 


406 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


ment  to  take  place  between  signal-men  who  by  mechanical  means 
jointly  control  a  signal,  although  they  may  be  a  considerable 
distance  apart.  Messrs.  Saxby  &  Farmer  exhibit  in  this  connection 
Farmer  &  Tyer's  patent  ''Electric  Slot  Apparatus,"  by  means  of 


—fivot  of  A  eatti  of  S, 


SYSTEM  OF  RAILWAY  SIGNALS.     FIG.  6. 

By  Saxby  Gr  Partner. 

which  the  same  result  can  be  accomplished  for  an  unlimited  distance 
between  the  signal-men.  This  may  be  applied  to  their  ordinary 
locking  apparatus  without  difficulty,  and  carries  out,  by  means  of 
an  electric  current,  all  the  advantages  of  the  mechanical  slot. 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  407 

Fig.  6  represents  one  of  the  signal  levers  of  the  locking  apparatus 
to  which  this  arrangement  has  been  attached.  A  is  a  lever  con- 
sisting of  a  pair  of  wrought-iron  plates  placed  side  by  side,  with 
a  space  of  about  three  inches  between  them.  This  lever  is  worked 
by  a  connecting-rod  from  the  signal  lever,  and  the  clutch,  C,  pivoted 
to  it,  connects  it  with  the  lever,  S,  acting  on  the  same  pivot  as 
A,  and  working  the  signal.  H  is  a  hammer,  so  pivoted  that  a 
small  upward  movement  of  A  will  raise  H  to  the  nearly  vertical 
position  in  which  it  is  shown.  M  is  an  electro-magnet,  and  D  a 
detent.  When  the  lever,  S,  is  free,  and  not  held  by  the  clutch, 
C,  the  signal  always  flies  to  "Danger." 

The  electro-magnet,  M,  when  under  the  action  of  an  electric 
current,  holds  the  'hammer,  H,  in  place,  being  further  assisted  by 
the  detent,  D,  also  under  its  influence.  If  the  current  be  broken, 
the  hammer,  H,  falls  on  to  the  clutch,  C,  releasing  the  bar,  S, 
and  placing  the  signal  at  danger.  When  the  current  is  broken, 
therefore,  it  is  impossible  for  the  signal-man  at  the  lever  to  move 
the  signal  from  danger,  no  matter  how  often  he  moves  the  lever 
back  and  forth,  and  by  putting  the  control  of  the  current  around 
the  electro-magnet,  M,  under  the  charge  of  the  other  signal- 
man, he  can  control  the  signal  as  he  desires. 

This  invention  gives  each  signal-man  on  a  block  system,  in 
addition  to  the  usual  block  telegraph  instruments,  the  actual 
mechanical  control  over  the  signals  at  the  next  station,  controlling 
the  coming  train  even  before  it  enters  his  section  of  road. 
Messrs.  Saxby  &  Farmer  also  show  an  admirable  arrangement  of 
gates  for  level  crossings,  so  arranged  that  danger-signals  are  dis- 
played whenever  the  gates  are  shut  across  the  railway,  and  cannot 
be  lowered  until  the  gates  are  opened  again  and  shut  across  the 
public  roadway.  The  gates  are  connected  to  a  lever  similar  to  a 
switch-lever,  and  by  a  rack  and  pinion  movement  all  gates 
are  shut  and  opened  simultaneously,  the  lever  being  made  to 
interlock  with  the  signals. 

The  Keystone  Bridge  Company,  of  Pittsburgh  and  Philadelphia, 
exhibit  in  the  Main  Building  a  beautiful  model,  on  a  scale  of 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL .  409 


one  twenty-fourth  the  full  size,  of  the  swing-bridge  which  it  has 
recently  erected  over  the  Raritan  Bay,  New  Jersey,  for  the  New 
York  and  Long  Branch  Railroad  Company.  The  bridge  was 
designed  by  J.  H.  Linville,  C.  E.,  the  President  and  Engineer  of 
the  Keystone  Company,  and  is  four  hundred  and  seventy-two 
feet  in  total  length,  being  the  longest  pivot-span  ever  built  in  the 
United  States,  and  believed  to  be  the  longest  in  the  world.  It  is 
what  is  denominated  a  through  bridge  for  a  single  track,  and 
consists  of  two  trusses,  forty  feet  high  at  the  centre,  and  thirty 
feet  at  the  extremities,  calculated  for  a  maximum  live  load  of  two 
thousand  five  hundred  pounds  per  lineal  foot,  and  a  constant  dead 
load  of  four  thousand  five  hundred  pounds  per  lineal  foot,  the 
parts  being  proportioned  so  as  to  resist  the  stresses  due  tq  the 
dead  weight  of  the  bridge  when  open,  as  well  as  the  dead  and 
Lve  load  when  closed,  and  operating  as  two  spans  of  ordinary 
bridge.  The  upper  and  lower  chords  are  consequently  calculated 
for  both  tension  and  compression.  The  whole  construction  of  the 
bridge  is  in  wrought  iron,  the  post  being  hollow  and  readily 
accessible  for  painting  on  the  interior  surface.  The  structure  is 
supported  on  the  rotating  pier  by  a  central  drum,  the  load  being 
transferred  either  to  a  central  anti-friction  cone-bearing  pivot  or  to 
a  series  of  thirty  bearing-wheels  under  the  drum,  two  feet  in 
diameter,  twelve  inches  face,  and  traversing  between  steel-faced 
tracks.  By  means  of  centre  suspension  bolts  in  the  drum,  the 
weight  may  be  adjusted  either  partly  or  entirely  on  the  central 
pivot  or  on  the  bearing-wheels,  as  found  to  be  most  desirable. 

The  lower  chords  of  the  bridge  are  parted  at  the  centre,  so 
that  by  means  of  wedges  the  ends  of  the  trusses  may  be  adjusted 
to  any  required  elevation.  Before  swinging  the  bridge  open,  the 
entire  structure  is  lifted  about  four  inches  by  four  hydraulic  rams 
placed  in  transverse  girders  of  the  central  drum  under  the  four  central 
posts  of  the  trusses,  and  operated  by  a  double  engine  having  two 
cylinders  of  eight  inches  diameter  and  ten  inches  stroke,  the  same 
engine  being  also  employed  to  turn  the  bridge.  The  turning-gear 
is  brought  into  action  by  a  friction-clutch,  there  being  two  pinions 


410 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


which  are  made  to  act  equally  on  opposite  parts  of  the  rack  by 
an  equalizing  attachment  in  a  large  mitre-wheel  placed  between 
the  shafts  that  drive  them. 

Automatic  locks  fasten  the  bridge  at  both  ends  when  it  is 
rotated  into  the  line  of  track,  and  it  is  then  lowered  on  to  solid 
bearings  on  the  drum  and  at  the  extremities  by  simply  turning  a 
valve,  the  projecting  rails  of  the  track  fitting  into  the  same  shoes 
that  receive  the  rails  of  the  .permanent  spans.  About  one-half  of 
the  dead  weight  of  the  structure  is  made  to  bear  upon  the  solid 


DETAILS  OF  THE  ILLINOIS  AND  ST.  LOUIS  BRIDGE. 

By  the  Keystone  Bridge  Co. 

adjustable  supports  of  the  rest  piers,  the  bridge  by  this  arrangement 
being  rendered  firm  and  steady  under  the  load  of  passing  trains, 
the  trusses  acting  as  two  independent  spans.  Therefore  when  one 
arm  is  loaded  no  effect  takes  place  in  the  other  arm,  and  no 
provision  is  required  for  holding  this  arm  down,  or  otherwise 
providing  as  necessary  in  the  case  of  continuous  girder  swing- 
bridges.  The.  bridge  has  been  designed  as  a  cantilever  under 
dead  load  when  swung,  and  as  two  independent  spans  under  dead 
and  live  load  when  closed,  this  being  considered  by  the  engineer 


MA  CHINER  Y  HA  LL. 


411 


as  the  most 
satis  fa  ctory 
plan;  and  by 
means  of  a 
slotted  link 
connection  at 
the  centres  of 
upper  chords, 
the  continuity 
may  easily  be 
destroyed 
when  the 
bridge  acts  as 
two  spans.  The 
operation  of 
1  i  f  t  i  n  g  the 
bridge  by  the 
rams  as  pre- 
viously men- 
tioned, before 
swinging,  ren- 
ders the  prac- 
tical execution 
of  this  prin- 
ciple entirely 
feasible.  The 
weight  of  the 
entire  struc- 
ture above  the 
drum  is  six 
hundred  tons, 
and  the  engine, 
turning-gear 
and  hydraulic 
machinery  op- 


erate the  whole 
with  ease. 

The    Key- 
stone Bridge 
Company      in 
this  connection 
also  make   an 
exhibit     illus- 
trating the  me- 
thod   adopted 
forformingand 
uniting     the 
steel       tubes 
>     used     in     the 
™     arches  of   the 
H     great    bridge 

<  £  over  the  Mis- 

«  t 

*  *  sissippi    River 

g  1  at    St.    Louis, 

o  v  and  the  accom- 
Q  ; 

5  *  panyingengra- 
CQ 

6  vingwill  serve 

E>    to  explain  more 

w        i 

clearly    our 

description 
of  the  same. 
This  bridge, 
the  largest 
arched  bridge 
in  the  world, 
with  its  spans 
of  five  hundred 
and  twenty  and 
five  hundred 
and  fifteen  feet, 


412  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION;  1876. 


was  designed  by  Captain  James  B.  Eads  as  Chief  Engineer,  and 
the  superstructure  was  manufactured  from  his  designs  and  erected  by 
the  Keystone  Bridge  Company.  The  tubes  of  the  arches  are 
composed  of  six  rolled  cast-steel  staves  forced  into  a  cylindrical 
envelope  of  steel,  the  lengths  of  sections  between  the  joints  being 
about  twelve  feet,  and  the  depth  of  the  arched  rib  between  the 
centres  of  two  concentric  tubes  about  the  same.  The  two  lines 
of  tubes  are  braced  together,  and  the  ends  of  contiguous  sections 
are  united  by  couplings  made  in  two  parts  with  projections  turned 
on  the  inner  surface  to  fit  into  corresponding  grooves  on  the  ends 
of  the  tubes.  The  connecting-pin  for  lateral  struts,  diagonals  and 
lateral  bracing  between  the  several  arches  is  tapered  and  driven 
tightly  into  the  joint,  the  whole  connection  being  made  water-tight. 

We  present  an  engraving  of  the  bridge  on  page  408,  which  will 
give  the  reader  an  excellent  idea  of  its  general  design  and  magnitude. 
The  arches  were  built  outward  simultaneously  from  the  abutments 
and  from  each  side  of  the  piers,  being  supported  by  means  of 
direct  guys,  composed  of  two  lines  of  main  cables  of  forty-two 
square  inches  section,  passing  over  towers  to  anchorages  on  the 
shore,  and  by  guys  balanced  over  towers  on  the  piers.  The  towers 
stood  on  hydraulic  rams,  which  were  caused  by  automatic  gauges 
to  rise  and  fall,  to  compensate  for  changes  of  temperature  in  the 
arches  and  cables. 

The  Keystone  Bridge  Company  also  make  a  handsome  display 
of  photographs  of  large  span  bridges  constructed  by  them,  the 
Parkersburg  and  Bellaire  bridges  of  three  hundred  and  forty-eight 
feet  span,  the  Newport  and  Cincinnati  bridge  of  four  hundred  and 
twenty  feet,  etc.,  etc.,  and  a  fine  perspective  of  the  High  River 
bridge  of  the  Cincinnati  Southern  Railway  over  the  Ohio,  with 
spans  up  to  five  hundred  and  twenty  feet. 

The  United  States  has  been  noted  for  many  years  for  the 
manufacture  of  cheap,  serviceable  varieties  of  clocks,  the  production 
of  late  amounting  to  over  a  million  annually,  and  immense  expor- 
tations  being  made  to  all  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  China, 
Japan,  South  America,  etc.,  until  the  "Yankee  Clock"  has  become 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


413 


a  household  word  in  every  quarter  of  the  known  world.  It  is 
only  within  the  past  twenty  years,  however,  that  the  construction 
of  Tower  Clocks  has  been  undertaken  in  this  country,  the  supply 
having  hitherto  been  procured  from  abroad.  Lately  a  number  of 
firms  have  been  engaged  in  this  business,  with  remarkable  success, 
obtaining  in  a  short  space  of  time  quite  a  celebrity,  and  notably 


THE  GREAT  CLOCK  IN  MACHINERY  HALL. 

Fly  the  fifth  Thomas  Clock  Co. 

among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  "Seth  Thomas  Clock  Com- 
pany," one  of  whose  clocks  has  been  placed  on  exhibition,  in 
working  condition,  over  the  east  entrance  of  the  Machinery  Hall. 
Its  mechanism  is  shown  by  the  engraving  above,  and  the 
details  of  its  construction  have  been  carried  out  in  great  perfection, 
bronze  metal  being  used  for  the  wheels,  except  in  the  case  of  the 


4i4  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

winding-gear,  which  is  of  iron.  It  strikes  the  hours  and  quarters 
upon  two  bells,  the  power  being  sufficient  for  thefse  to  be  extra 
heavy. 

An  idea  may  be  gained  of  the  size  of  the  clock  when  it  is 
stated  that  the  main  frame  is  ten  feet  long  by  three  and  a  half  feet 
wide  and  seven  feet  high  from  the  floor,  and  that  the  total  weight 
is  seven  thousand  pounds.  In  the  striking  apparatus  the  main 
wheels  are  forty-one  inches  in  diameter  and  the  drums  for  cords 
twenty-three  inches.  The  main  time-wheel  has  a  diameter  of 
twenty-four  inches,  and  the  drum  for  cord  twelve  inches.  The 
pendulum  has  a  zinc  compensation-rod  fourteen  and  a  half  feet 
long  and  beats  once  in  two  seconds,  the  weight,  including  pendulum- 
bob,  being  five  hundred  pounds.  Dennison's  Gravity  Escapement 
is  used.  Arrangements  have  been  made  to  run  twenty-six  electrical 
clocks  from  the  main  clock,  to  be  located  in  different  parts  of 
of  the  building,  and  to  make  connection  every  twenty  seconds. 
The  clocks  manufactured  by  this  Company  are  remarkable  for 
their  accuracy  and  the  perfection  of  their  mechanism,  and  have 
obtained  a  reputation  as  first-class  time-keepers  in  every  respect. 

The  mineral  Asbestos,  although  familiar  to  the  ancients  and 
employed  by  them  in  the  manufacture  of  a  fire-proof  crema- 
tion-cloth and  for  some  other  purposes,  has,  in  modern  times— 
until  within  the  last  few  years — been  classed  among  those  sub- 
stances more  curious  than  useful.  The  silky,  fibrous  nature  which 
it  possesses,  and  its  well-known  fire-proof  and  non-conducting 
qualities  and  resistance  to  the  action  of  acids  have,  however,  at 
last  attracted  attention,  and  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  H.  W.  Johns,  of 
New  York,  for  its  .adaptation  to  some  very  important  purposes  in 
the  useful  arts.  We  present  on  the  next  page  an  engraving  of  an 
exceedingly  characteristic  specimen  of  this,  mineral  which  has  been 
placed  among  the  exhibits. 

Asbestos  exists  in  vast  quantities  in  the  United  States  and 
numerous  other  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  obtained  from  the  mines 
either  in  bundles  of  soft,  silky  fibre  or  in  hard  blocks  which  are 
capable  of  separation  into  fibres.  These  fibres  vary  in  length  from 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


two  to  forty  inches,  are  of  a  greasy  nature  and  exceedingly 
flexible,  possessing  great  strength  in  the  direction  of  their  length, 
and  are  therefore  capable  of  being  woven  into  cloth  as  used  by 
the  ancients.  These  properties  possessed  by  asbestos  render  it  an 
excellent  substance  to  incorporate  into  cements — as  hair  is  put 
into  plaster — to  bind  the  parts  together  and  at  the  same  time  to 
give  body  to  the  material,  and  it  was  this  use  that  Mr.  Johns 
first  made  of  it. 

The  facilities  for  obtaining  the  mineral   were  very  poor— there 
never  having  been  any  demand   for  it  in  the   market — but  as  the 


ASBESTOS  IN  ITS  NATURAL  STATE. 

By  H.  W.  yohns. 

want  was  created  and  it  really  existed  in  nature  in  great  quantities, 
these  facilities  soon  increased  and  with  abundance  of  material  Mr. 
Johns  was  enabled  to  utilize  it  for  other  and  more  important 
purposes.  It  w,as  found  to  make  an  excellent  roofing  material. 
Sometimes  it  is  applied  in  the  form  of  an  asbestos  concrete  and 
spread  over  the  roof  by  a  trowel,  but  more  generally  a  peculiar 
roofing  felt — into  the  composition  of  which  asbestos  largely  enters 
— it  is  first  nailed  down  on  the  sheathing  boards,  and  this  is  then 
covered  by  means  of  a  brush  with  a  preparation  of  flocculent 
asbestos,  silica  paint,  etc.,  making  an  entirely  water-,  fire-  and 


4i 6  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


weather-proof  surface,  a  good  non-conductor  of  heat,  well  adapted 
to  all  climates  and  costing  a  very  reasonable  price. 

Its  non-conducting  qualities  render  asbestos  peculiarly  applicable 
as  a  covering  for  steam-boilers,  pipes,  etc.,  and  it  has  largely 
been  used  for  this  purpose.  One  of  its  most  recent  applications 
has  been  for  steam-packing.  The  elevated  temperature,  moisture 
and  friction  to  which  steam-packing  is  subjected  requires  a  material 
possessing  just  the  qualifications  existing  in  the  asbestos,  and  ex- 
perience has  shown  its  great  adaptability  to  this  use.  As  a  body  for 
paints,  being  mixed  with  linseed-oil  and  colors,  it  has  succeeded 
remarkably  well;  an  asbestos  paper  is  made  incombustible  and 
very  useful  for  filtering  acids,  and  every  day  new  applications 
are  discovered  for  this  material,  so  few  years  ago  supposed  to 
be  worthless. 

Messrs.  Frederick  Kurd  &  Co.,  of  Wakefield,  England,  exhibit 
a  Coal-Cutting  Machine,  which  appears  to  present  some  novelties 
in  design  and  to  be  a  very  desirable  form  of  apparatus  for  our 
mines,  cutting  gangway  as  well  as  room-work.  We  refer  more 
particularly  to  the  pattern  for  four  feet  to  four  and  a  half  feet 
seams,  smaller  seams  not  being,  as  a  rule,  worked  with  profit  in 
this  country.  The  illustrations  accompanying — presented  on  pages 
417  and  418 — will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  construction 
and  mode  of  action  of  this  machine.  The  value  and  importance 
of  reliable  coal-cutting  machinery  is  increasing  every  day,  tending 
to  dispense  with  the  most  exhausting  and  dangerous  part  of  a 
miner's  work,  to  lessen  by  a  very  large  amount  the  waste  or  slack 
always  obtained  in  getting  out  coal,  and  to  obviate  the  expense, 
trouble  and  unreliability  of  hand-labor. 

The  machine  is  provided  with  two  cylinders  of  six  inches 
diameter  and  twelve  inches  stroke,  and  works  by  the  action  of 
compressed  air.  This  has  been  found  the  most  satisfactory  motive 
power  that  can  be  used  for  mining  machinery,  being  easy  of 
application,  and,  at  the  same  time,  improving  the  ventilation  and 
reducing  liability  to  fire.  Motion  is  given  to  the  cutters  by  bevel 
gearing,  and  the  shaft  driving  the  cutters,  by  a  simple  arrange- 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


ment,    is    made    capable   of   being    revolved    in    a    vertical    plane 
about   the  horizontal  shaft,  thus  providing  for  cuttng  out  all    four 


faces  of  the  drift,  quite  an  advantage  over  the  usual  machines 
which  make  only  the  under-cut  In  the  cutting-wheel  the  periphery 
in  which  the  cutters  are  fixed  is  placed  eccentric  to  the  fulcrum 


4i8 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


on  which  they  revolve,  and  the  pressure  is  resisted  by  anti-friction 
bowls,   which    also   act   as    drivers,   thus    dispensing   with    guides 


COAL  CUTTING  MACHINE,  FIGS,  a  AND 
By  F.  Hurtt&Co. 


and  slides.  The  cutters  are  put  in  or  taken  out  of  cut  by  a 
swivel-nut  and  screw  acting  on  the  lever  or  radial  arm  in  which 
they  revolve,  or  by  a  pinion  and  quadrant.  They  are  made  of 


MACHINERY  HALL.  419 

plain,  square,  Titanic  steel,  manufactured  by  S.  Osborne  &  Co., 
of  Sheffield,  and  are  set  sideways,  above  and  below,  allowing  for 
the  clearance  of  the  disk,  being  readily  adjusted  radially  to  vary 
the  depth  of  the  cut  according  to  the  quality  of  the  coal  or  mineral. 

The  leading  wheels  of  the  machine  are  kept  in  position  on 
the  rails  when  at  work,  by  a  bowl  mounted  in  a  differential  lever, 
with  self-acting  adjustment  to  adapt  itself  to  irregularities  on  the 
coal  face  without  the  possibility  of  getting  off  the  rails  while 
at  work. 

After  removing  the  coal  included  within  the  cuts,  a  sort  of 
wedge  shovel,  as  shown  by  Fig.  3,  is  used  to  raise  up  and  remove 
the  lower  portion  of  the  seam.  The  form  of  post  shown  in  this 
figure  is  not  nearly  so  good  as  the  French  post,  where  the  bottom 
is  placed  in  a  ring  containing  sand,  so  that  if  the  roof  presses 
down  and  holds  it,  it  can  be  relieved  by  letting  some  of  the  sand 
run  out,  being  on  the  same  principle  as  the  method  of  supporting 
the  centres  for  arch  bridges  by  sand-tubes. 

None  but  those  who  habitually  practice  an  art,  can  be  aware 
of  the  nature  and  the  extent  of  the  influence  of  the  raw  materials 
its  professors  are  obliged  to  employ,  upon  the  external  expression 
of  the  art  itself;  and,  indeed,  it  requires  rather  a  subtle  analysis 
of  the  workings  of  human  genius,  before  due  importance  can  be 
assigned  to  the  accidental  or  local  peculiarities  to  which  that  genius 
may  be  subjected.  Yet  even  a  very  cursory  glance  at  the  history 
of  the  building  arts  must  suffice  to  show  that  their  various  phases 
have  depended,  in  a  degree  only  inferior  to  those  connected  with 
social  and  religious  institutions,  upon  the  materials  the  nations 
which  have  in  turn  carried  forward  the  torch  of  civilization  have 
habitually  employed.  The  porphyries  and  granites  of  F>gypt ;  the 
bricks  and  alabasters  of  Assyria;  the  rocks  of  India;  the  marbles 
of  Greece;  the  bricks  and  pozzuolanos  of  Rome;  the  small  rubble 
masonry  of  the  middle  ages;  the  large  ashler  stones  of  modern 
France  and  Italy;  the  bricks  of  England,  Holland,  Belgium,  etc.; 
and,  now,  the  application  of  iron  in  its  various  forms — have  each 
and  all  impressed  upon  the  monuments  of  different  nations  the 


422  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

impossibility  to  fill  them  all  alike,  and  the  bricks  in  some  are 
turned  out  imperfect.  The  extraction  of  the  moisture  in  the  clay 
before  moulding  also  destroys  its  cohesive  power,  preventing  com- 
plete fusion  in  the  burning,  and  producing  bricks  unable  to  with- 
stand the  action  of  the  weather.  In  the  manufacture  of  slush-brick, 
the  great  amount  of  water  that  is  used  while  exceedingly  favorable 
to  the  production  of  good  brick,  is  otherwise  objectionable  on 
account  of  the  great  length  of  time  expended  in  the  slow,  out- 
door process  of  drying,  and  the  risk  attended  from  unfavorable 
weather,  as  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  water  must  be  evaporated 
from  slush-brick,  before  it  is  safe  to  burn  them.  In  work  producing 
say  thirty  thousand  of  this  kind  of  brick  per  day,  it  is  stated 
upwards  of  twenty-three  tons  of  water  must  be  evaporated  every 
twenty-four  hours. 

The  present  machine  occupies  a  position  between  the  "Dry 
Clay"  and  "Slush"  machines,  and  may  be  designated  as  a  Crude 
or  Moist  Clay  machine,  manufacturing  to  advantage  with  crude 
clay  in  a  state  so  stiff  as  to  require  an  evaporation  of  only  about 
one-eighth  that  necessary  with  slush-brick  before  burning,  and  yet 
retaining  all  the  cohesive  qualities  of  the  material.  The  brick, 
when  burned,  are  of  closer  grain,  less  porous  and,  therefore,  stronger 
and  more  durable  than  those  manufactured  by  the  other  methods. 

The  engraving  given  on  page  420  shows  the  general  form  of 
the  machine.  It  is  provided  with  a  circular  mould-table  having 
an  intermittent  motion  and  containing  eight  sets  of  moulds,  with 
four  to  a  set,  thus  making  in  all  thirty-two  moulds.  There  are 
three  distinct  places  for  producing  pressure  on  the  clay  in  the 
moulds.  The  first  is  produced  by  a  pressure-wheel  from  above, 
the  second  by  a  toggle-joint  actuated  by  cams,  and  the  third  from 
above  and  below  by  toggle-joints  and  cams.  The  brick  are  delivered 
by  sweep-motion  on  to  an  endless  belt,  or  carrier.  The  moulds 
are  of  hardened  steel  and  the  balance  of  the  machine  is  of  iron 
worked  up  in  a  very  solid  and  substantial  manner.  A  ten  horse- 
power engine,  with  one  of  these  machines,  will  produce  forty- 
thousand  brick  in  ten  hours,  including  the  preparation  of  the 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL.  423 

clay,  which   is   performed   by   the    same   apparatus,   although    not 
shown  in  the  engraving. 

In  a  quiet  corner  of  the  Machinery  Hall,  just  back  of  the 
exhibit  of  locomotive  engines,  stands  a  machine  which  at  first 
sight  would  probably  puzzle  some  of  our  best  mechanics  to  give  an 
opinion  as  to  its  use,  and  even  then,  would  require  a  master-mind  to 
analyze  its  mode  of  action.  We  refer  to  the  Difference  or  Calcu- 
lating Engine  of  George  B.  Grant,  designed  for  the  construction 
of  large  Mathematical  Tables,  such  as  tables  of  Logarithms,  Sines, 
Tangents,  Reciprocal,  Square  and  Cube  Roots,  etc.,  and  built  for 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  All  those  interested  in  such 
subjects  are  familiar  with  the  Difference  Engine  of  the  late  Charles 
Babbage  and  its  failure.  Following  him  came  George  Schentz,  a 
printer  of  Stockholm,  whose  machine,  however,  never  came  up  to 
the  full  requirements  of  a  difference  engine,  being  of  slow  speed, 
sensitive  and  delicate  in  its  details,  containing  radical  defects  in 
the  theory  of  its  mechanism  and  never  reaching  beyond  the 
entrance  to  the  goal  for  which  its  inventor  contended.  The  subject 
was  first  taken  up  by  Mr.  Grant  in  1869,  when  he  was  as  yet  entirely 
ignorant  of  the  labors  of  Babbage  and  Schentz,  and  the  year 
after,  he  prepared  full  drawings  of  his  machine,  but  met  with  so 
much  discouragement  from  those  he  consulted  in  the  matter  that 
the  work  was  given  up.  In  1871,  however,  Professor  Wollcot 
Gibbs — now  of  Harvard  College — heard  of  his  labors  on  the 
problem,  and  after  a  thorough  examination  into  the  subject,  approved 
of  the  plans  and  gave  so  much  encouragement  to  the  inventor  by 
his. deep  interest  and  constant  efforts  of  support  as  to  contribute 
largely  to  the  final  success  that  has  been  attained.  After  several 
failures  to  procure  the  necessary  funds  for  expenses,  a  liberal 
subscription  was  made  by  the  Boston  Thursday  Club  in  1874,  and 
the  same  year  the  means  requisite  for  the  construction  of  a  large 
engine  were  furnished  by  Mr.  Fairman  Rogers,  of  Philadelphia, 
to  whose  munificence  science  is  indebted  for  the  machine  now 
before  us,  which  was  finished  only  a  few  days  before  the  opening 
of  the  Exhibition.  When  it  is  remembered  how  important 


\ 


MA CHINERY  HALL.  425 

numerical  tables  are  in  practical  applications  of  mathematics,  and 
the  great  labor  and  time  necessarily  occupied  in  their  calculation 
and  publication  by  the  usual  methods,  involving  errors  which  it 
seems  impossible  to  prevent,  even  with  the  greatest  care  and  the 
most  watchful  proof-reading,  the  value  of  such  a  machine  may 
readily  be  seen. 

The  accompanying  engravings — shown  on  pages  424,  426  and 
428 — give  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  apparatus.  It  occupies  a  space 
of  about  five  feet  in  height  by  eight  feet  in  length,  and  weighs 
about  two  thousand  pounds,  containing  when  in  full  working  order, 
from  twelve  thousand  to  fifteen  thousand  pieces.  The  long  body 
contains  the  calculating  mechanism,  while  at  the  front  end  is  an 
apparatus  for  printing  a  wax  mould  of  the  results,  from  which  an 
electrotype  may  be  made  directly  for  printing,  requiring  no  setting 
of  type  and  no  risks  of  error.  The  machine  is  driven  either  by 
hand,  by  a  crank  at  the  front  end,  or  by  a  power  appliance  at 
the  rear  end.  The  calculating  portion  of  the  machine  consists  of 
a  number  of  elements  placed  in  a  long  frame  side  by  side,  each 
element  representing  one  decimal  place  of  the  work,  and  there 
are  from  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  of  these,  according  to  the 
particular  requirements  of  the  problem  in  hand. 

Figures  2  and  3 — presented  on  pages  426  and  428— show  front 
and  rear  views  of  an  element  constructed  of  pieces  of  sheet  metal, 
all  in  the  machine  being  alike  and  interchangeable.  They  are 
placed  in  the  frame  one-half  inch  apart  from  each  other  and 
arranged  in  groups,  each  group  representing  an  order  of  differences. 
Referring  to  the  figures,  the  portion  A  of  the  element  is  fixed 
and  the  portion  D  is  a  rocking  arm  revolving  upon  a  bearing  at 
the  centre  of  the  plate,  C,  and  having  its  upper  part — in  the  case 
of  all  the  elements— fixed  to  a  long  frame,  shown  in  cross-section 
in  the  figure  at  N,  which  is  oscillated  back  and  forth  by  the 
driving-gear  of  the  machine.  When  this  frame  is  moved  forward 
in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow,  the  arm  of  each  element 
moves  with  it  and  adds  to  itself  the  figure  that  is  upon  the 
element  of  the  same  decimal  place  in  the  group  or  order  below. 


426 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  pin,  k,  e,  in  the  figure   moves  over   the  teeth   of  the  wheel, 
C,  until  a  proper  point  is  reached,  when  it   is  released  by  means 


Fig.  2. 

The  Element 
in 


VIEWS  OF  THE  ELEMENT;    CALCULATING  MACHINE. 

By  George  B.  Grant. 

of  mechanism  attached  to  the  corresponding  element  in  the  order 
below  and   falls  on   to  the  cogs  of  the  wheel,  C,  carrying  it  with 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  42  7 


it  in  its  forward  movement  until  lifted  out  from  the  cogs  by  the 
riser  at  R.  As  it  goes  back  it  sends  its  figure  up  to  be  added  to 
the  element  of  the  same  decimal  place  in  the  next  group  or  order 
above.  The  trip,  t,  striking  one  of  the  pins,  p,  draws  down  upon  the 
wire,  wt,  and  by  means  of  a  longitudinal  lever,  Lf,  acts  upon  a  wire 
that  releases  the  driver,  k  e,  of  the  element  added  to  in  the  order 
above.  (See  L  b  and  w  d  c  in  the  figures.)  The  action  throughout 
is  the  same,  each  motion  forward  adding  all  the  odd  orders  to 
the  even  ones,  and  each  motion  back  adding  the  even  orders  to 
the  odd  ones  and  at  the  same  time  printing  the  tabular  number  at 
the  front  end  of  the  machine,  stamping  it  into  the  wax  plate  there 
for  that  purpose. 

This  machine  possesses  a  very  great  advantage  over  any  pre- 
vious invention  of  the  kind,  in  that  any  wheel  may  be  connected 
so  as  to  add  its  number  to  any  wheel  of  the  next  higher  order. 
In  the  machines  of  Babbage  and  Scheutz  each  element  was  arranged 
to  add  its  figure  to  a  given  fixed  wheel  in  the  order  above.  With 
a  given  amount  of  mechanism,  by  means  of  this  arrangement, 
this  machine  can  accomplish  work  of  three  times  the  complexity 
of  any  former  machine. 

Many  of  the  figures  used  in  an  operation  are  constant.  Thus, 
the  last  order  is  constant  at  various  values  and  many  of  the  other 
elements  are  fixed  at  zero  or  at  nine.  To  provide  for  this,  each 
element  carries  a  constant-wheel,  consisting  of  a  thin  disk  of  brass, 
x,  which  turns  on  the  bearing  of  the  calculating-wheel,  and  being 
set  at  any  figure  by  the  spring  and  pin,  y, — Fig.  2 — allows  the 
driver,  k,  e,  to  drop  on  the  wheel  at  the  same  tooth  each  time 
and  add  a  constant  figure.  Thus — see  Fig.  2 — if  set  at  8, 
there  are  8  units  added  at  each  movement. 

The  operation  of  carriage,  while  simple  as  to  mechanism, 
is  exceedingly  complex  in  theory  of  action,  the  apparatus  for  the 
same,  although  by  far  the  most  important  part  of  any  calculating- 
machine,  being,  nevertheless,  the  most  difficult  to  contrive,  and  it 
was  to  this  that  Babbage's  machine  owed  its  failure,  and  Scheutz's 
machine  its  slow  working  speed.  The  riser,  R,  is  hung  en  the 


428  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

centre-pin  of  the  wheel,  C,  and  it  falls  as  the  wheel  passes  from 
nine  to  zero,  throwing  the  driver,  k  e,  out  one  space  further  on 
than  otherwise  would  be  done  and  carrying  a  unit  to  its  wheel. 
This  riser,  R,  is  held  up  by  two  catches  which  are  operated  by 
the  pins,  p,  p,  p.  On  the  next  wheel  below,  one  catch  is  drawn 
aside  as  the  wheel  passes  from  eight  to  nine  and  the  other  as  the 
zero  is  reached.  As  the  riser  drops,  a  pin,  w  p,  upon  it  strikes 


stc 


Fig 
BACK  VIEW 

or 

ELEMENT. 


VIEWS  OF  THE  ELEMENT;    CALCULATING  MACHINE. 

By  George  B.  Grant. 


and  draws  the  upper  catch  of  the  next  wheel  above.  The  arrange- 
ment makes  a  perfect  and  simultaneous  carrying  apparatus,  acting 
under  any  possible  combination  of  requirements. 

The  construction  of  the  printing  apparatus  is  rather  complex, 
as  many  conditions  must  be  satisfied.  Each  of  the  upper  ten 
calculating-wheels  is  connected  by  gearing  with  a  die-plate,  in  the 
edge  of  which  common  printing  type  are  set.  While  the  machine 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL.  429 

is  in  motion,  these  plates  are  separated  slightly  and  work  easily 
without  interference  with  each  other.  When  an  impression  is  to 
be  taken,  they  are  brought  closely  and  firmly  together  and  a  pair 
of  plungers  at  the  same  time  straightens  the  line  of  figures  and 
presents  it  ready  for  the  plate  of  wax  below,  which  rises  and 
receives  the  impression. 

The  terms  of  the  table  can  be  arranged  in  almost  any  way 
desired  for  printing,  either  each  under  the  preceding,  or  before  it, 
or  they  may  be  run  across  the  page,  as  is  generally  done,  and 
either  forward  or  backward.  It  is  also  possible  to  adjust  the  dis- 
tance between  the  lines  and  vary  it  from  line  to  line  as  required. 

When  the  machine  is  worked  by  hand,  a  speed  may  be  made 
of  ten  to  twelve  terms  per  minute,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty 
when  by  power  by  the  attachment  at  the  rear  end.  All  that  limits 
the  speed  is  the  imperfection  of  the  mechanism,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  present  machine — the  first  ever  constructed  of  so  complex  a 
character— imperfections  are  to  be  expected  which  will  not  exist 
in  future  machines.  Thirty  of  the  elements  of  this  machine  were 
placed  in  a  light  wooden  frame'  and  worked  successfully  at  a  speed 
of  over  one  hundred  terms  per  minute,  and  if  the  whole  machine 
were  used  and  sufficient  power  applied,  this  speed  would  be  per- 
fectly practicable,  provided  that  the  mechanism  of  the  driving-gear 
and  printing  apparatus  were  in  accurate  working  order  and  made 
sufficiently  strong  to  stand  the  wear  and  tear  resulting  from 
the  same. 

Mr.  Morris  L.  Oram,  of  Philadelphia,  exhibits  a  Flexible  Man- 
drel for  Bending  Metal  Pipe  that  has  attracted  considerable 
attention,  being  an  exceedingly  ingenious  and  novel  arrangement 
of  great  value  in  its  particular  department.  By  the  usual  method 
of  bending  pipes  they  are  first  filled  with  melted  rosin,  some 
fusible  metal  as  lead,  or  sand,  so  as  to  preserve  their  shape, 
requiring  considerable  trouble  and  care  in  cleaning  out  afterwards 
and  making  it  a  tedious,  expensive  and  imperfect  job  at  the  best, 
requiring  almost  universally — unless  with  very  small  pipe — the  use 
of  the  hammer  and  file  to  straighten  the  irregular  crimps  formed 


430  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

\ 

on  the  interior  curve  of  the  bend.     By  this  method,  a  mandrel  is 

used,  being  a  strong,  closely  wound  steel  helix,  formed  of  square 
rectangular  wire,  and  having  a  uniform  external  diameter  such  that 
it  may  fit  easily  in  the  pipe  to  be  bent.  A  nut  is  fastened 
into  one  end  of  the  mandrel  into  which  a  stem  is  screwed,  which 
may  be  made  of  any  length,  for  removing  the  mandrel  after 
the  work  is  accomplished.  This  is  done  by  simply  revolving 
the  stem  in  the  direction  to  wind  up  the  helix,  when  its  diameter 
is  reduced,  allowing  it  to  be  easily  withdrawn,  and  the  spring  in 
the  metal  restores  it  to  its  original  size  after  removal.  If  the 


MANDREL,  FOR  BENDING  PIPE. 

By  Morris  L.  Oram. 

mandrel  is  not  sufficiently  long  for  the  whole  bend  of  the  pipe, 
it  may  be  moved  from  place  to  place  as  required,  or  reversed 
bends  introduced,  if  desired,  with  the  greatest  ease.  If  the  proper 
sized  mandrel  is  not  on  hand  to  bend  a  given  pipe,  the  next  size 
smaller  may  be  used  without  any  appreciable  error. 

Large  pipe  can  be  bent  as  accurately  and  readily  as  small  pipe, 
a  matter  of  great  difficulty  by  the  old  methods,  and  impossible 
when  the  pipe  became  quite  large,  requiring  previous  softening  by 
heat,  and  resulting  in  elliptical,  unequal  and  irregular  shapes  of 
cross-section  that  were  exceedingly  undesirable,  the  material  at 


MACHINERY  HALL.  431 

the  outer  diameter  becoming  very  thin  and  weak.  By  this  method, 
the  pipe  after  bending  has  a  practically  uniform  internal  section 
without  appreciable  variation  in  diameters,  a  qualification  that  will 
be  fully  appreciated  by  the  manufacturers  of  pneumatic  dispatch- 
tubes,  where  this  requirement  is  so  necessary. 

Mr.  Oram  has  bent  ^-inch  butted  zinc  pipe  to  a  curve  of  i*^ 
inches  radius,  i-inch  pipe  to  2  inches  radius,  and  2^-inch  pipe 
to  5  inches  radius.  A  2-inch  pipe  has  been  bent  to  4  inches 
radius,  cold  without  any  difficulty.  Square  pipe  may  also  be  bent 
as  readily  as  round,  and  the  process  seems  to  supply  a  want 
long  felt. 

Mr.  James  J.  Hicks,  of  London,  England,  exhibits  a  curious 
apparatus  in  the  form  of  a  Radiometer  for  demonstrating  the 
mechanical  action  of  light  and  the  conversion  of  radiation  into 
motive  power,  constructed  according  to  the  design  of  Mr.  William 
Crookes,  F.  R.  S.,  to  whom  is  due  the  discovery  of  this  force. 
Mr.  Crookes'  attention  was  first  drawn  to  the  matter  from  noticing 
that  in  weighing  heavy  pieces  of  glass  apparatus  in  a  vacuum, 
there  appeared,  to  be  a  variation  in  weight,  corresponding  to  varia- 
tions in  temperature  of  the  material  weighed  from  that  of  the 
surrounding  air  and  weights  of  balance.  This  led  him  to  institute 
a  series  of  experiments  with  very  delicate  forms  of  apparatus,  and 
he  discovered  that  there  was  a  force  depending  upon  the  action 
of  the  light.  In  the  case  of  an  excedingly  fine  and  light  arm 
suspended  in  a  glass  tube  with  balls  of  various  materials  at  the 
ends  of  the  arm,  the  whole  being  thoroughly  exhausted  from  air, 
he  found  that  on  the  approach  of  a  heated  or  luminous  body  to 
one  of  the  balls  a  very  decided  repulsion  took  place  and  an 
attraction  if  a  cold  body,  such  as  ice,  was  used.  He  also  ascer- 
tained that  when  the  different  rays  from  the  spectrum  were  thrown 
on  white  and  black  surfaces  there  was  a  decided  difference  between 
the  action  of  light  and  of  radiant  heat,  dark  heat  having  no 
perceptible  difference  of  action  on  white  or  black  substances,  but 
luminous  rays  repelling  black  surfaces  much  more  energetically 
than  white.  Acting  upon  these  facts  he  designed  and  constructed 


432 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


an  instrument,  completely  and  beautifully  exemplifying  the  principles 
of  his  discovery,  which  he  called  the  "  Radiometer." 

This  instrument  is  shown  below  in  section  and  plan  by  Figs. 
I  and  2,  and  consists  of  four  arms  of  some  light  material,  to  the 
ends  of  which  are  fixed  thin  disks  of  pith  with  one  side  black 


CROOKES'  RADIOMETER. 

By  James  J  Hicks. 


and  the  other  white,  the'  black  sides  for  the  four  disks  all  facing 
the  same  way.  These  arms  cross  each  other  at  right  angles  and 
are  balanced  at  their  centre  points  on  a  hard  steel  point,  a,  resting 
on  a  jewel-cup,  c,  so  that  they  may  freely  revolve  in  a  horizontal 
plane.  A  thin  glass  globe  drawn  out  to  a  tube  at  the  lower  part 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL .  433 

so  as  to  form  a  support,  encloses  the  whole  and  is  exhausted  to 
the  greatest  attainable  vacuum  and  hermetically  sealed. 

When  this  instrument  is  placed  subject  to  the  influence  of 
light,  the  arms  rotate  with  greater  or  less  velocity  directly  in  pro- 
portion to  the  intensity  of  the  incident  rays,  and  in  the  case  of 
very  intense  light,  like  that  from  the  sun  or  burning  magnesium, 
the  rapidity  of  rotation  becomes  so  great  that  the  separate  disks 
are  lost  in  a  circle  of  light.  Experiments  made  by  varying  the 
distance  from  the  source  of  light  show  that  the  mechanical  action 
is  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance.  Dark  heat 
produces  no  rotation. 

This  new  apparatus  may  be  applied  practically  to  a  number  of 
uses.  A  standard  candle  may  be  defined  as  one  which  at  a  given 
fixed  distance  causes  a  certain  number  of  revolutions  to  the  apparatus 
per  minute,  and  comparison  can  readily  be  made  between  this 
standard  and  various  other  kinds  of  light,  or  these  various  kinds 
may  be  compared  among  themselves.  The  effects  of  light  through 
different  media  can  also  be  ascertained  and  the  photographer  may 
use  this  instrument  to  great  advantage  in  his  so-called  dark-room 
to  ascertain  whether  the  light  he  is  using  is  likely  to  injure  his 
sensitive  preparations  or  not.  He  can  also  measure  the  intensity 
of  the  light  in  his  operating-room,  and  by  means  of  one  of  these 
instruments  instead  of  a  watch,  regulate  the  amount  of  exposure 
necessary  for  a  subject  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  working  according 
to  so  many  revolutions  of  the  instrument  independent  of  the  time. 

The  discoverer  has  also  very  lately  invented  a  torsion-balance 
by  which  he  is  enabled  to  weigh  the  force  of  radiation  from  a 
lighted  body — as  a  candle — the  principle  being  similar  to  that  of 
Ritchie's  torsion-balance,  and  fully  confirming  the  previously  ascer- 
tained law  of  inverse  squares.  By  calculations-  deduced  from  an 
experiment  with  sunlight,  it  was  demonstrated  that  the  pressure  of 
sunshine  amounted  to  two  and  three-tenths  tons  per  square  mile. 
Mr.  Crookes'  discovery  is  one  of  great  value,  and  promises  to  be  the 
means  of  solving  in  future  many  problems,  as  yet  unexplained, 
in  the  action  of  forces  in  our  vast  universe. 


434 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Messrs.  Poole  &  Hunt,  of  Baltimore  Md,  exhibit  several  sizes 
of  "Leffel's  Patent,  American  Double  Turbine,  Water-Wheels;" 
and  we  present  an  engraving  of  one  having  a  wheel  thirty  and 


DOUBLE  TURBINE  WATER-WHEEL. 

Messrs.  Poole  &  Hunt 


a-half  inches  in    diameter,  the  largest  shown,  although  the  manu- 
facturers make  up  to  a  diameter  of  ninety-six  inches. 

These   wheels   are   exceedingly   popular    in   the  United  States, 


MA  CHINE  £  Y  HALL.  435 

there  being  over  seven  thousand  now  in  use,  and  the  owners  of 
the  patent-right  claim  great  advantages  from  the  peculiarities 
of  construction.  The  unsteady  motion,  variable  speed  and  irregular 
quantity  of  water  always  obtaining  in  practical  manufacturing 
operations,  necessitate  requirements  in  the  construction  of  water- 
wheels  that  do  not  always  show  themselves  in  the  usual  test-trials, 
where  every  thing  is  arranged  for  the  purpose,  and  it  is  claimed 
that  the  Leffel  Double-Turbine  meets  just  these  points  and 
possesses  remarkable  efficiency  and  durability  under  actual  long- 
continued  use.  This  Turbine  belongs  to  that  class  in  which  the 
water  enters  at  the  circumference  and  discharges  at  the  centre,  and 
it  has  two  sets  of  buckets  on  one  wheel,  one  over  the  other,  and 
each  constructed  upon  a  different  principle.  The  upper  ones  curve 
only  slightly  downward  and  run  in  towards  the  centre  of  the 
wheel,  having  the  faces  at  quite  an  angle  to  a  radial  line,  while 
the  lower  ones  curve  down  almost  immediately  and  bend  sideways 
in  the  direction  of  the  circumference  very  considerably,  before 
reaching  the  lower  face.  The  upper  buckets,  therefore,  receive  a 
great  side-pressure  and  the  lower  ones  almost  a  vertical  pressure. 
By  this  arrangement  it  is  claimed  that  there  is  admitted  to  a  wheel 
of  any  given  size,  the  greatest  possible  volume  of  water,  con- 
sistent with  its  economical  use,  and  at  the  same  time  the  greatest 
attainable  area  is  provided  for  its  discharge. 

Movable  guides  around  the  outer  circumference  direct  the  water 
in  to  both  sets  of  buckets,  and  these  guides  may  be  adjusted  to 
any  position  at  pleasure,  even  to  shutting  off  the  water  entirely  if 
desired;  working  by  guide-rods  and  a  segment  of  a  toothed  wheel 
running  in  a  pinion  regulated  by  a  Vertical  rod  convenient  of 
access.  The  wheel  is  surrounded  by  an  ample  spherical  cast-iron 
flume  or  penstock,  seven  feet  six  inches  in  diameter  in  the  present 
case,  furnished  with  a  movable  cap  large  enough  to  allow  the 
passage  of  the  entire  wheel,  if  necessary,  at  any  time  for  repairs, 
and  also  provided  with  man-holes.  The  penstock  is  attached  at 
one  side  by  a  flange  connection  to  a  cast-iron  supply-pipe,  three 
feet  eleven  and  a-half  inches  in  diameter.  The  wheel  is  supported 


436 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


at   the   foot   of   its   axle   by   a   hard-wood    rest,    set   on    end,    and 
working  with  excellent  effect. 

It  is  claimed  for  these  wheels  that  they  give  a  maximum 
discharge  of  water  with  a  minimum  friction,  and  produce  an  actual 
work  of  eighty-five  per  cent,  on  an  average  of  the  absolute  work 
of  the  fall.  The  cast-iron  penstock  presents  great  difficulties  of 
construction,  and  has  been  executed  in  superior  style,  reflecting 
great  credit  on  the  makers.  In  fact  all  the  parts  of  the  machine  have 


been  manufac- 
tured with  great 
care  and  preci- 
sion, this  alone 
adding  material- 
ly to  its  economy 
and  efficiency; 
and  the  whole 
combination,  in 
proportion  and 
general  mechan- 
ical arrangement, 
is  first-class, 
well  adapted  to 
its  intended  pur- 
pose, and  secur- 
ing the  best  re- 
sults, both  in 


HEATER  AND  FORCE  PUMP. 

By  Poole  &•  Hunt. 


efficiency  of  ac- 
tion and  durabil- 
ity under  use. 

We  also  en- 
grave on  this 
page  a  Patent 
Feed-Water 
Heaterand  Dou- 
ble Acting  Force 
Pump,  exhibited 
by  Messrs.  Poole 
&Hunt.  In  feed- 
water  heaters  as 
usually  con- 
structed, the  ex- 
haust steam  from 
the  engine  is  dis- 
charged into  the 


water  and  there  permitted  to  escape;  whereas  in  the  present  example 
the  heater  is  simply  connected  by  a  branch-pipe  with  the  exhaust 
in  such  a  way  that  a  sufficient  volume  of  the  exhaust  steam  is 
attracted  into  the  heater  to  raise  the  feed-water  to  a  temperature 
of  200  degrees  without  in  any  way  impeding  the  free  escape  of 
the  exhaust,  or  causing  back  pressure  in  the  cylinder.  The  supply 
of  cold  water  is  admitted  into  the  heater  in  a  small  but  continuous 
stream,  and  flows  over  and  through  a  series  of  disks  set  inside, 
but  shown  separately  in  the  engraving. 


MACHINERY  HALL.  437 

By  the  arrangement  here  adopted  the  condensation,  refuse  grease 
and  other  matter  from  the  cylinder  does  not  enter  the  heater,  and 
is  therefore  prevented  from  access  to  the  boiler.  In  the  ordinary 
heaters,  where  the  steam  discharges  directly  into  the  water,  these 
impurities  are  carried  on  into  the  boiler,  forming  injurious  combina- 
tions, causing  foaming,  etc.,  and  raising  serious  objections  to  the 
use  of  "open  heaters"  as  usually  constructed. 

The  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  from  time  immemorial  have 
been  obliged  to  contend  with  great  difficulties  from  encroachments 
of  the  sea  and  from  inland  floods  of  the  rivers.  The  waters  of 
the  North  Sea,  under  storms  in  certain  directions,  are  driven  with 
great  violence  on  the  coast,  and  although  in  many  places  a  natural 
barrier  exists  in  the  sand  thrown  up  by  the  ocean,  forming  rows 
of  hillocks,  which  give  protection  to  the  country  back  of  them, 
yet  at  other  places,  and  necessarily  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  this 
does  not  occur,  and  sea-walls  or  dikes  of  great  strength  have  to 
be  constructed  to  resist  the  action  of  the  waves.  On  the  other 
hand  the  nature  of  the  country,  consisting  of  vast  areas  of  low 
bottom-land  like  that  on  the  Mississippi,  sometimes  even  twenty 
feet  or  more  below  the  beds  of  the  rivers,  subjects  it  to  great 
risk  of  overflow,  especially  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the 
upper  waters,  coming  from  more  temperate  climes,  break  up  before 
a  free  passage  has  been  opened  to  the  sea,  and  accumulating, 
completely  fill  the  channels  of  the  rivers  and  spread  over  the 
country,  carrying  destruction  in  all  directions. 

The  proper  protection  of  Holland  against  these  encroachments 
demanded  the  mutual  cooperation  of  all  the  inhabitants,  and  there- 
fore became  a  national  undertaking,  and  resulted,  after  much 
trouble  from  want  of  union  among  the  different  provinces,  in  the 
establishment,  in  1798,  of  what  is  called  the  Waterstaat,  an  organi- 
zation clothed  with  almost  absolute  power,  with  authority  to  compel 
service  from  all  sources  if  any  sudden  demand  should  occur  for 
it,  and  into  whose  hands  was  intrusted  the  construction  and  main- 
tenance of  all  hydrographical  undertakings  in  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands. 


436 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  ihj6. 


at   the   foot   of    its   axle   by   a   hard-wood    rest,    set   on    end,    and 
working  with  excellent  effect. 

It  is  claimed  for  these  wheels  that  they  give  a  maximum 
discharge  of  water  with  a  minimum  friction,  and  produce  an  actual 
work  of  eighty-five  per  cent,  on  an  average  of  the  absolute  work 
of  the  fall.  The  cast-iron  penstock  presents  great  difficulties  of 
construction,  and  has  been  executed  in  superior  style,  reflecting 
great  credit  on  the  makers.  In  fact  all  the  parts  of  the  machine  have 


been  manufac- 
tured with  great 
care  and  preci- 
sion, this  alone 
adding  material- 
ly to  its  economy 
and  efficiency; 
and  the  whole 
combination,  in 
proportion  and 
general  mechan- 
ical arrangement, 
is  first-class, 
well  adapted  to 
its  intended  pur- 
pose, and  secur- 
ing the  best  re- 
sults, both  in 


HEATER  AND  FORCE  PUMP. 

By  Poole  &  Hunt. 


efficiency  of  ac- 
tion and  durabil- 
ity under  use. 

We  also  en- 
grave on  this 
page  a  Patent 
Feed-Water 
Heaterand  Dou- 
ble Acting  Force 
Pump,  exhibited 
by  Messrs.  Poole 
&Hunt.  In  feed- 
water  heaters  as 
usually  con- 
structed, the  ex- 
haust steam  from 
the  engine  is  dis- 
charged into  the 


water  and  there  permitted  to  escape ;  whereas  in  the  present  example 
the  heater  is  simply  connected  by  a  branch-pipe  with  the  exhaust 
in  such  a  way  that  a  sufficient  volume  of  the  exhaust  steam  is 
attracted  into  the  heater  to  raise  the  feed-water  to  a  temperature 
of  200  degrees  without  in  any  way  impeding  the  free  escape  of 
the  exhaust,  or  causing  back  pressure  in  the  cylinder.  The  supply 
of  cold  water  is  admitted  into  the  heater  in  a  small  but  continuous 
stream,  and  flows  over  and  through  a  series  of  disks  set  inside, 
but  shown  separately  in  the  engraving. 


MACHINERY  HALL.  437 

By  the  arrangement  here  adopted  the  condensation,  refuse  grease 
and  other  matter  from  the  cylinder  does  not  enter  the  heater,  and 
is  therefore  prevented  from  access  to  the  boiler.  In  the  ordinary 
heaters,  where  the  steam  discharges  directly  into  the  water,  these 
impurities  are  carried  on  into  the  boiler,  forming  injurious  combina- 
tions, causing  foaming,  etc.,  and  raising  serious  objections  to  the 
use  of  "open  heaters"  as  usually  constructed. 

The  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  from  time  immemorial  have 
been  obliged  to  contend  with  great  difficulties  from  encroachments 
of  the  sea  and  from  inland  floods  of  the  rivers.  The  waters  of 
the  North  Sea,  under  storms  in  certain  directions,  are  driven  with 
great  violence  on  the  coast,  and  although  in  many  places  a  natural 
barrier  exists  in  the  sand  thrown  up  by  the  ocean,  forming  rows 
of  hillocks,  which  give  protection  to  the  country  back  of  them, 
yet  at  other  places,  and  necessarily  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  this 
does  not  occur,  and  sea-walls  or  dikes  of  great  strength  have  to 
be  constructed  to  resist  the  action  of  the  waves.  On  the  other 
hand  the  nature  of  the  country,  consisting  of  vast  areas  of  low 
bottom-land  like  that  on  the  Mississippi,  sometimes  even  twenty 
feet  or  more  below  the  beds  of  the  rivers,  subjects  it  to  great 
risk  of  overflow,  especially  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the 
upper  waters,  coming  from  more  temperate  climes,  break  up  before 
a  free  passage  has  been  opened  to  the  sea,  and  accumulating, 
completely  fill  the  channels  of  the  rivers  and  spread  over  the 
country,  carrying  destruction  in  all  directions. 

The  proper  protection  of  Holland  against  these  encroachments 
demanded  the  mutual  cooperation  of  all  the  inhabitants,  and  there- 
fore became  a  national  undertaking,  and  resulted,  after  much 
trouble  from  want  of  union  among  the  different  provinces,  in  the 
establishment,  in  1798,  of  what  is  called  the  Waterstaat,  an  organi- 
zation clothed  with  almost  absolute  power,  with  authority  to  compel 
service  from  all  sources  if  any  sudden  demand  should  occur  for 
it,  and  into  whose  hands  was  intrusted  the  construction  and  main- 
tenance of  all  hydrographical  undertakings  in  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands. 


438 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The    causes    previously    given,  and    the    fact    that   the    soil   is 


generally   composed   of   a   soft   alluvium    over   sand   of    unknown 
depth,    and    also    that    the    great    sedimentary   deposits    brought 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


439 


down  by  the  rivers  are  continually  acting  to  elevate  them  above 
their  surroundings,  have  together  resulted  in  a  strong  develop- 
ment of  the  principles  of  hydraulic  engineering,  and  the  actual 
execution  of  great  operations  in  the  reclamation  of  flooded 


lands,  the  opening 
of  rivers  to  navi- 
gation, the  build- 
ing of  sluices,  locks, 
canals,  the  con- 
struction of  diffi- 
cult bridge  founda- 
tions, etc. 

In  1 842  a  Royal 
Academy  for  En- 
gineers was  found- 
ed at  Delft,  where 
scientific  training 
was  provided  not 
only  for  engineers 
intended  for  the 
Waterstaat,but  also 
for  those  proposing 
to  engage  in  kin- 
dred pursuits  of  in- 
dustry and  trade. 


Government,  and 
the  quarter  century 
just  past  has  been 
more  prolific  in 
bringing  forward 
engineers  of  dis- 
tinguished ability 
and  in  the  comple- 
tion of  grand  en- 
gineering works  of 
most  important 
character,  than  any 
previous  period  in 
the  history  of  the 
country.  The  De- 
partment of  Pub- 
lic Works  of  the 
Netherlands  makes 
an  exceedingly 
handsome  display 
at  the  Exhibition,  il- 


In    1860   the    con-    CANAL  FROM  AMSTERDAM  TO  lustrating  by  means 

struction  of  all  rail-  THE  NORIH_SEAt  of  maps,  plans  and 

roads    came  under  ^^^^SS^^/ 
the  charge  of   the 


models,  its  princi- 
pal  great  works. 
Among  the  first  of  these  was  the  drainage  of  the  lake  of 
Haarlem,  ordered  on  the  27th  of  March,  1839,  and  completed  in 
1852,  at  a  cost  of  over  four  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.  This 
lake  had  been  formed  by  an  overflow  very  many  years  before, 
and  the  present  operation  recovered  some  42,481  acres  of  valuable 
land  by  the  sale  of  which  the  entire  expenditure  was  returned. 


440 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


All  that  section  of  Holland  surrounding  and  covered  by  the  Zuyder 
Zee  has  been  entirely  changed  from  its  original  condition  by  *he 
inroads  of  the  ocean,  which  have  occurred  from  time  to  time  on  a 
greater  or  smaller  scale,  and  on  record  from  the  fourth  century. 
The  gradual  formation  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  itself  has  been  due  to 


BRIDGE  AT  BOMM-EL. 

Depxrtmtnt  of  the  Netherlands. 

this  cause,  the  whole  area  having  been  at  one  time  a  fertile,  well- 
cultivated  country.  A  comparison  of  the  two  maps  on  exhibition, 
of  Holland  in  1576  and  1876,  illustrates  this  very  clearly.  The 
question  of  the  drainage  of  the  vast  area  of  this  sea  has  also 
been  taken  up,  and  the  investigations  show  that  the  work  is 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


441 


entirely  practicable  and  can  be  carried  out  in  from  eight  to  twelve 
years'  time. 

Another  important  work  has  been  the  construction  of  the 
North  Sea  Ship  Canal  from  Amsterdam,  saving  thirty-six  miles  in 
distance,  and  restoring  a  large  amount  of  land  from  the  waste 


BRIDGE  OVER  THE  HOLLANDSCH  DIEP. 

Department  of  the  Netherlands. 


waters  of  the  Wijker-Meer  and  the  Ij.  The  building  of  the  piers 
or  jetties  for  the  North  Sea  entrance  was  effected  under  great 
difficulties,  the  treacherous  sands  of  the  coast  rendering  unsuccessful 
the  method  first  adopted,  of  using  heavy  concrete  blocks  as 
previously  carried  out  on  the  English  coast  at  Dover,  and  requiring 


442  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

considerable  modifications  of  plan.  The  construction  of  the 
great  embankment  or  dam  across  the  Y  below  Amsterdam,  from 
Schellingwoude  to  Paardenhock,  a  distance  of  three-fourths  of  a 
mile,  rendered  necessary  in  carrying  out  the  project,  and  involving 
the  building  of  a  system  of  locks  sufficiently  large  to  pass  the 
immense  shipping  business  without  allowing  the  barrier  to  be  even 
felt  as  an  obstruction,  was  one  of  the  most  important  features 
connected  with  this  undertaking,  and  it  was  here  that  the  use  of 
mattresses  of  fascine  work,  weighted  with  ballast  stone,  one  of  the 
peculiarities  of  dike  construction  in  Holland,  came  so  extensively 
into  play. 

Next  in  order  came  the  project  for  the  improvement  of  navi- 
gation from  Rotterdam  to  the  sea,  by  the  selection  of  the  most 
favorable  of  the  numerous  channels  by  which  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse 
and  the  Scheldt  communicate  with  each  other  and  discharge  into 
the  ocean,  and  by  the  introduction  of  lateral  dikes,  contracting  the 
width  where  too  great,  or  widening  it  where  too  narrow,  so  improv- 
ing it  as  to  allow  the  most  effective  action  of  the  tides  in  removing 
deposits;  also  the  formation  of  a  new  outlet  to  the  sea  by  a 
cut  through  the  Hoek  van  Holland  and  the  building  of  jetties  into 
the  sea  for  the  proper  protection  of  its  entrance  from  storms. 
The  whole  of  this  work  involved  great  practical  difficulties,  and 
required  engineering  skill  of  the  very  highest  order.  It  has  been 
carried  out  with  the  greatest  success,  and  rests,  as  is  to  be  hoped, 
an  enduring  monument  to  those  by  whom  it  was  undertaken. 

The  particular  feature  in  the  construction  of  the  jetties  has 
been  in  the  use  of  the  fascine  mattress,  a  thing  not  before  attempted 
in  the  opened  sea,  although  very  extensively  used  in  dams  and 
dikes  obstructing  or  confining  inland  waters.  The  mattresses  are 
made  on  the  sea-shore  between  high  and  low  water,  so  that  they 
can  be  floated  off  to  their  final  locations  by  the  tide.  Fascines 
are  made  from  willow  branches,  osiers,  etc.,  which  are  grown  for 
the  purpose  as  a  regular  business  on  the  low  lands  of  the 
estuaries  of  the  rivers,  the  crop  being  cut  every  third  or  fourth 
year.  The  larger  sticks  are  used  for  cask  hoops,  and  the 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


443 


smaller  ones  tied  up 
into  bundles,  each 
bundle  being  made 
to  contain  at  least 
three  sticks,  from  ten 
to  eleven  and  a  half 
feet  long,  and  two  of 
six  and  a  half  to  eight 
feet,  the  twigs  and 
smaller  branches  re- 
maining attached,  and 
more  being  added  if 
necessary  to  make 
up  the  standard  size. 
The  whole  is  bound 
together  with  two 
osiers,  making  a  bun- 
dle about  seventeen 
inches  in  circumfer- 
ence at  the  thick  end, 
and  fourteen  at  the 
other.  Long  ropes, 
called  "wiepen,"  are 
made  up  with  a  series 
of  fascines,  each  bun- 
dle bending  well  into 
the  next,  all  firmly 
tied  together,  and 
making  a  rope  of 
seventeen  inches  cir- 
cumference. To 
build  the  mattress  a 
series  of  these 
"wiepen"  are  first  laid 
parallel  to  each  other, 


444 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


at  distances  apart  of  about  three  feet,  and  on  top  of  these,  at 
right  angles  to  them,  a  second  series,  the  same  distances  apart. 
These  are  then  tied  together  at  each  crossing-point  with  two  twigs, 
except  those  on  the  exterior  lines  and  the  alternate  ones  on  the 
interior,  which  are  fastened  with  tarred  rope  from  old  ships' 
cordage.  The  ropes  are  twisted  upon  small  stakes,  so  that  the 
ends  may  be  used  for  tying  upper  wiepen  to  be  mentioned 
hereafter. 

A  continuous  layer  of  bundles  of  twigs  is  now  laid  upon  the 
lower  lines  of  wiepen,  at  right  angles  to  them,  covering  the  whole 
of  the  open  spaces,  the  top  ends  of  the  twigs  being  upward,  and 
the  different  bundles  lapping  partly  over  each  other.  A  second 
layer  is  then  placed  over  the  whole  at  right  angles  to  the  first 


DETAILS  OF  BRIDGE  AT  KUILENBURG. 

Department  of  the  Netherlands. 

and  on  top  of  this  a  third  layer  of  'the  same  kind,  rectangular  to  the 
second.  Wiepen  are  then  placed  at  right  angles  in  both  directions 
directly  over  the  lower  wiepen,  the  small  stakes  at  the  corners 
fixing  the  locations  of  the  cross  points,  and  they  are  tied  at  the 
alternate  crossings  with  the  ends  of  the  tarred  ropes  used  for  tying 
the  lower  wiepen,  the  whole  being  firmly  pressed  and  held  together. 
The  intermediate  crossings  are  tied  with  twigs,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  lower  wiepen,  and  the  small  stakes  at  the  alternate  corners 
are  pulled  out.  The  upper  surface  of  the  mattress  is  finally  pro- 
vided with  divisions  or  cells  to  contain  the  ballast  or  broken  stone 
necessary  for  sinking  the  mattress  and  holding  it  in  position  in 
the  workv  These  are  formed  by  driving  stakes  into  the  upper 
lines  of  wiepen,  and  weaving  basket-work  in  between  them 
with  willow  twigs  up  to  a  height  of  seven  to  nine  inches,  the 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HA  LL.  445 

stakes  being  then  driven  down  well  into  the  mattress,  leaving  the 
ends  about  six  inches  above  the  willow-work.  At  the  third  and 
fourth  crossings  of  the  wiepen  from  the  corners,  arid  also  at  dis- 
tances of  about  fifty  feet  from  each  other  over  the  surface  of  the 
mattress  a  large  stake  is  driven  with  some  six  or  seven  others  in 
a  sloping  direction  from  the  centre  one,  these  being  used  to  fasten 
the  cables  by  which  the  mattress  is  conveyed  to  its  destination 
and  held  in  place  while  being  sunk.  Iron  rings  are  also  provided, 
fixed  to  cross  points  of  the  wiepen,  so  as  to  attach  vessels  by 
lines  when  the  mattress  is  placed  in  position.  The  mattress  is 
now  towed  to  its  position,,  and  anchored  as  far  as  may  be  necessary, 
dependent  upon  the  velocity  of  the  sea;  and  small  vessels  of  ten 
to  fifteen  tons  are  secured  all  around,  filled  with  good  supplies 
of  stone.  The  pockets  of  the  mattress  are  gradually  loaded  from 
the  centre  outward,  and  then  more  rapidly  as  it  begins  to  sink, 
care  being  taken  to  let  it  settle  evenly.  At  the  proper  time  all 
ropes  are  let  go  simultaneously,  the  stone  being  thrown  out  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  and  the  mattress  finally  sinks  to  the  bottom. 
The  ballasting  proceeds  until  about  three  and  a  half  to  seven 
hundredweight  of  stone  per  square  yard  are  deposited  over  the 
whole  surface. 

The  work  is  built  up  in  this  manner,  one  layer  of  mattresses 
over  the  other,  until  the  required  height  is  reached.  The  head 
of  the  southern  jetty  has  a  width  at  the  top  of  eighty-two  and  a 
half  feet,  the  centre  being  three  and  three-tenths  feet  above  mean 
low-water  line.  At  the  height  of  ten  feet  above  that  level  is  a  plat- 
form of  timber,  supported  on  rows  of  square  piles  driven  down 
through  the  whole  construction,  the  outside  rows  being  inclined  and 
bolted  at  the  tops  to  the  adjoining  rows.  The  platform  has  a  width 
of  about  twenty-five  feet,  and  carries  a  line  of  railroad  track/  The 
sides  of  the  jetty  are  filled  with  large  blocks  of  basalt  stone  set 
to  a  slope  of  one  to  one  on  the  south  side,  and  one  and  one- 
fourth  to  one  on  the  north,  the  lower  mattresses  projecting  from 
twenty-seven  to  thirty-three  feet  beyond  the .  body  of  the  work. 
The  head  is  protected  by  two  ranks  of  piles,  bolted  together  at 


446 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  top,  and  two 
other  ranks  of 
shorter  piles  are 
driven  in  the 
stone-work  as 
a  protection 
around  the  out- 
side of  the  whole. 
The  Utrecht 
Boxtel  line  of 
State  railways  in 
the  Netherlands 
crosses  three 
large  rivers,  the 
Lek,  the  Waal 
and  the  Maas, 
within  a  distance 
of  ten  miles,  the 
bridges  at  these 
points  being 
known  by  the  re- 
spective names 
of  the  Kuilen- 
burg,  the  Bom- 
mel  and  the 
Crevecceur  via- 
ducts. The  great 
lengths  of  these 
bridges,  the  na- 
ture  of  the 
streams  that 
they  cross,  and 
the  local  circum- 
stances necessi- 
tated engineer- 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL.  447 

ing  skill  of  a  high  class.  The  conditions  of  the  foundations 
were  such  as  to  require  piling.  The  piles  varied  from  twenty- 
three  to  fifty  feet  in  length,  being  driven  in  some  cases  by  the 
ordinary  pile-driving  engine,  and  in  others  by  a  steam  ram. 
After  the  piles  were  cut  off  to  a  level  below  water,  the  space 
between  them  was  filled  with  beton  or  concrete,  projecting  from 
three  to  five  and  a  half  feet  beyond  the  footings  of  the  masonry 
above,  and  varying  from  eleven  to  twenty-one  feet  in  thickness. 
The  tops  of  the  piles  were  completely  floored  over,  and  masonry 
built  up,  well  bonded  on  to  the  floors  to  prevent  sliding  by 
longitudinal  and  cross  walings  of  oak,  and  the  faces  of  piers  and 
ice-breakers  were  finished  in  Belgian  ashlar.  The  footings  of  the 
piers  were  thoroughly  protected  by  a  close  row  of  long  piles  to 
each,  and  heavy  rip-rapping  of  rough  stone. 

The  superstructure  of  the  Kuilenburg  bridge  was  built  by  the 
well-known  Dutch  firm  of  Harcort  &  Co.,  under  the  superintendence 
of  Mr.  N.  T.  Michaelis,  Engineer-in-chief.  It  consists  of  nine  spans, 
entirely  of  wrought-iron  construction,  there  being  one  span  of  492 
feet  clear  opening,  one  of  262  feet  6  inches,  and  seven  of  187  feet 
each,  making,  with  the  widths  of  piers,  a  total  length  between  the 
faces  of  abutments  of  2181  feet.  The  bridge  consists  of  two  open 
trusses,  built  of  riveted  plates  and  angles,  the  upper  and  lower 
flanges  being  formed  in  the  shape  of  double  T's,  side  by  side,  the 
inclined  ties  of  thin  rectangular  bars,  except  toward  the  centres 
of  spans,  where  they  require  stiffening  for  compression  under 
variable  load,  and  the  vertical  struts  of  I-shape,  some  of  the 
largest  being  stengthened  by  the  introduction  of  two  series  of 
channel-bars  between  the  verticals.  The  trusses  are  placed  so  as 
to  give  a  clear  width  of  roadway  of  27  feet,  and  height  of  1 6  feet 
5  inches,  the  structure  being  a  through  bridge.  Cross-girders  2  feet 
1 1 J^  inches  deep  connect  the  main  trusses,  and  the  whole  is  well 
stiffened  by  a  a  thorough  system  of  lateral  and  diagonal  bracing. 
The  span  of  492  feet  has  a  parabolic  upper  member,  the  depth  of 
truss  in  centre  being  35.6  feet,  and  at  the  ends  26.24  feet-  The 
other  spans  have  rectangular  trusses  of  the  same  depth  as  the 


448  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

ends  of  the  parabolic  truss.  A[l  holes  for  riveting  were  drilled,  no 
punching  being  allowed  in  the  work.  The  bridge  is  built  for  double 
track,  there  being  only  a  single  track  placed  on  at  present.  Two 
foot-paths  are  provided  for  the  service  of  administration.  The  total 
weight  of  material  in  the  structure  is  as  follows : — 

Wrought-iron, 4394A  tons 

Bessemer  steel, 610^     " 

Cast-iron, 30 

Lead,     .  " 3i2*     " 

There  were  also  8000  cubic  feet  of  oak,  9500  cubic  feet  of  fir 
timber  used,  and  350  tons  of  plates  placed  between  the  rails  to  form 
the  floor  of  the  bridge.  The  total  cost  for  masonry  and  super- 
structure was  $1,187,100. 

The  Bommel  Bridge  consists  of  eight  land  openings  of  187  feet 
each,  and  three  openings  of  393  feet,  making  a  total  length  between 
abutments  of  2839  feet  7^  inches.  The  Crevecceur  bridge  has  ten 
openings  of  187  feet,  and  one  of  328  feet,  making  a  total  span 
of  2346  feet.  The  superstructure  of  these  two  bridges  is  of  the 
same  character  as  that  at  Kuilenburg,  except  that  the  masonry  is 
made  for  two  separate  sin'gle-track  bridges,  only  one  being  erected 
at  present,  and  an  additional  line  of  superstructure  must  be  put  'up 
when  double  track  becomes  necessary.  Curved  upper  members  are 
used  in  the  longer  spans  of  both  bridges.  The  weights  of  material 
at  Bommel  are — 

Wrought-iron, 3468&  tons. 

Bessemer  steel, 227^     " 

Lead, 2^     " 

the  total  cost  being  $i,358;i2'5  for  masonry  and  superstructure. 
The  Crevecceur  bridge  contained — 

Wrought-iron, 2io6T8^  tons. 

Bessemer  steel, 84^     " 

Lead, ft     " 

and  cost  $465,000. 


MACHINERY  HALL.  449 

The  whole  of  the  iron  and  steel  work  in  these  bridges  received 
six  coats  of  best  lead-oil  paint  after  being  cleaned  in  a  bath  of 
muriatic  acid.  The  limiting  strains  for  tension  and  compression 
were  taken  at  6^4  and  4^  tons  per  square  inch  respectively. 

Among  the  other  noteworthy  exhibits  may  be  mentioned  the 
bridge  over  the  Hollandsch  Diep,  the  steel  bridge  at  Dordrecht,  the 
swing  bridge  across  the  North  Holland  Canal,  etc.,  and  a  hand- 
some model  of  the  Blanken  lock-gates,  used  at  a  number  of  places 
in  Holland.  They  are  arranged  by  means  of  communicating  ducts 
between  the  chambers  of  the  locks  and  a  recess  into  which  the  gates 
open,  that  the  gates  may  be  opened  and  closed  simply  by  regu- 
lating the  passage  of  the  water  through  these  ducts. 

Prominent  among  the  exhibits  in  the  Machinery  Hall,  just  west 
of  the  Corliss  Engine,  and  towering  almost  to  the  roof,  may  be 
seen  the  Blast  Engine  of  the  I.  P.  Morris  Company,  of  Philadelphia. 
This  engine  has  been  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  American 
Furnace  Managers,  certain  requirements  having  been  laid  down  as 
a  standard  which  the  firm  have  endeavored  to  follow  as  closely  as 
possible.  These  requirements  are,  "completeness  without  sacrifice 
of  accessibility  to  the  moving  parts,  self-adjustment  of  parts  liable 
to  irregularities  of  wear,  and  steadiness  of  the  whole  structure  and 
preservation  of  alignment  by  being  self-contained."  The  first 
engines  of  this  class — a  pair  having  steam  cylinders  forty  inches 
in  diameter,  and  blast  fifty-eight  inches,  with  a  stroke  of  four  feet 
six  inches,  and  producing  a  blast  pressure  of  twenty-five  pounds — 
were  built  about  eight  years  ago  for  -Bessemer  steel  production. 
Since  that  time  twenty-four,  including  the  present  engine,  have  been 
built  and  put  into  successful  operation,  showing  that  the  efforts  of 
the  builders  towards  perfection  of  design  have  not  been  without 
their  reward. 

The  firm  construct  engines  on  this  plan  with  blast  cylinders 
varying  from  seventy-five  inches  in  diameter  and  six  feet  stroke  to 
one  hundred  and  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  nine  feet  stroke, 
and  nearly  all  of  them  are  provided  with  condensing  apparatus 
sufficient  for  initial  steam  pressure  of  forty  pounds  per  square  inch, 


45° 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  f876."}  BLAST  ENGINE. 

JSy  1.  P.  Morris  Co.  Philadelphia, 


{Machinery  Hall. 


MA  CHINEX  Y  HALL, 


admitted  during  three-fourths  of  the  stroke,  and  producing  a 
vacuum  of  twenty-four  and  one-half  to  twenty-six  inches.  All 
parts  are  proportioned  to  the  work  of  supplying  steadily  a  blast 
of  forty  pounds  pressure  if  required ;  and  although  this  is  beyond 
the  ordinary  working  of  anthracite  coal-burning  furnaces,  it  has 
been  exceeded  in  one  case,  a  pressure  of  thirteen  and  one-half 
pounds  having  been  blown  for  a  considerable  time  by  one  of  these 
engines  without  causing  it  any  injury. 

The    engines    are    fitted  with   the    Wanich  Equilibrium  Valve, 

*  designed  by  Mr.  A.  Wanich,  foreman  of  the  machine-shop  of  the 

Company.     The  essential  feature  of  this  valve  consists  in  the  use 


THE  WANICH  EQUILIBRIUM  VALVE. 

of  a  ring  cast  on  the  back  of  the  main  valve,  extending  upward 
and  'bored  out  so  as  to  envelope  and  slide  freely  upon  the  out- 
side of  another  ring  cast  on  the  steam-chest  bonnet  above,  extending 
downward  and  turned  off  evenly  on  the  outer  circumference.  These 
rings  are  of  course  concentric,  and  the  annular  space  between  them 
is  quite  small,  very  much  less  than  the  aggregate  area  of  the  holes 
for  the  passage  of  steam  below  the  pilot  valve,  consequently  any 
steam  passing  this  annular  opening  when  the  pilot  is  raised,  goes 
freely  through  into  the  cylinder,  exerting  no  appreciable  pressure 
on  the  back  of  the  main  valve,  and  permitting  it  to  rise  easily. 
This  has  been  confirmed  by  connecting  an  ordinary  steam-gauge 
with  the  space  enclosed  by  the  rings,  showing  the  pressure,  when 


452  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

the  pilot  was  seated,  to  be  say  thirty-five  pounds,  and  dropping 
suddenly  almost  to  zero  when  the  pilot  was  raised,  until  the  main 
valve  opened,  when  it  rose  again  to  thirty-five  pounds.  This  valve 
has  been  in  use  for  about  four  years  with  highly  satisfactory  results, 
saving  steam  and  proving  easily  manageable. 

The  blast-valves  are  of  selected  thick  sole-leather,  backed  with 
plate-iron,  and  the  blast-piston  is  fitted  for  either  metal,  wood  or 
bag-packing.  The  steam-piston  is  provided  with  metal  double  rings 
held  out  by  springs.  The  valves  are  lifted  by  cams  operating 
directly  against  rollers  fitted  into  the  bottom  ends  of  the  lifting- 
rods,  and  these  cams  are  adjustable  but  not  variable,  giving  facilities 
for  experimenting  so  as  to  determine  the  best  distribution  of  steam 
without  interference  with  each  other.  The  cam-shaft  is  driven  by 
spur-gears  fitted  to  the  main  shaft.  The  rim  of  the  fly-wheels  on 
the  side  in  line  with  the  crank-pin  is  cored  out,  so  that  the  excess 
of  weight  on  the  other  side  will  counterbalance  the  weights  of 
piston-rods,  cross-heads,  etc.  The  shaft  is  of  wrought-iron,  and 
the  cross-head  swivels  in  the  yoke  connecting  the  two  piston-rods, 
so  that  it  may  accommodate  itself  to  any  irregularities  of  wear 
in  the  main  shaft  or  crank-pins. 

This  particular  engine  has  a  height  of  thirty-six  and  one-half 
feet,  weighs  two  hundred  and  fourteen  thousand  seven-hundred  and 
ninety-four  pounds,  and  exerts  seven  hundred  and  fifty  horse-power, 
delivering  ten  thousand  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute.  The  bed- 
plate upon  which  the  whole  construction  rests  is  eight  feet  wide 
and  thirteen  feet  long,  weighs  seventeen  thousand  pounds,  and  is 
laid  on  a  foundation  of  hard  brick  or  good  stone  at  least  ten  feet 
in  depth  and  well  anchored  to  it  so  as  to  insure  stability.  The 
steam-cylinder  is  fifty  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  blast-cylinder 
ninety  inches,  the  stroke  being  seven  feet.  The  fly-wheels  weigh 
forty  thousand  pounds  each. 

The  height  of  the  engine  is  principally  due  to  the  length  of 
stroke,  and  this  has  been  done  so  that  a  given  quantity  of  air 
can  be  supplied  by  a  less  number  of  revolutions  and  with  fewer 
beats  of  the  blast-valves  than  is  generally  adopted  in  other  engines. 


MA  CHINE  £  Y  HALL.  45  3 

The  direct  loss  in  delivery  due  to  piston  clearance  and  space  in 
the  passage  being  a  quantity  depending  on  the  diameter  of  the 
blast-cylinder,  then  if  we  take  a  fixed  diameter  of  cylinder,  it  is 
clear  that  the  percentage  of  loss  of  useful  effect  will  diminish  as 
the  stroke  increases. 

The  engine  is  provided  with  a  condensing  apparatus  situated 
just  back  of  the  main  working  parts,  and  in  the  entire  construction 
everything  has  been  carried  out  with  a  view  to  proper  economy 
both  in  first  construction  and  in  future  use.  The  firm  claim  for  this 
style  of  blowing-engine,  as  compared  with  others,  a  reduced  cost, 
not  only  of  the  engine  itself,  but  also  of  the  foundations  required 
in  setting  it  up,  and  the  buildings  necessary  to  cover  and  protect 
it  when  placed  in  working  condition.  Great  advantage  also  results 
from  the  direct  action  of  the  engine,  the  power  being  transmitted 
directly  from  the  piston-cylinder  to  the  blast-cylinder  without  the 
action  of  a  beam,  as  in  many  engines  of  this  kind.  The  I.  P. 
Morris  Company  have  for  many  years  been  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  heavy  machinery  for  iron  blast-furnaces,  and  their 
exhibit  does  them  great  credit. 

In  the  profession  of  Dental  Surgery  great  progress  has  been 
made  of  late  years  in  the  introduction  of  machinery  for  the  use 
of  the  practitioner.  The  manufacture  of  instruments,  apparatus, 
furniture,  artificial  teeth,  and  dentists'  materials  generally,  has  been 
largely  increased  and  developed,  and  one  may  now  obtain  at  the 
dental  depots,  ready  for  use,  all  of  the  latest  and  most  improved 
appliances  required  in  this  department  of  business. 

Prominent  among  these  establishments  is  that  of  S.  S.  White, 
of  Philadelphia,  represented  by  an  exceedingly  elaborate  display  in 
the  Main  Exhibition  Building.  We  desire  particularly  to  draw 
attention  to  the  Dental  Engine,  exhibited  by  this  house,  as  an 
exemplification  of  the  modern  application  of  machinery,  and  well 
illustrated  by  the  accompanying  engravings.  By  means  of  this 
engine  all  the  operations  of  drilling,  filing,  polishing,  etc.,  are 
accomplished  with  great  saving  of  labor  and  time  to  the  operator 
and  of  pain  to  the  patient,  affording  better-shaped  cavities  than  by 


454 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Fie.  2. 


Fig.  I, 


DENTAL  ENGINE. 
By  S.  S.  Wkitt. 


MACHINERY  HALL.  455 

the  old  methods,  and  giving  great  facilities  for  furnishing  the 
fillings  and  cleaning  the  teeth.  It  combines  great  steadiness  of 
motion  with  ease  and  quietness  of  working,  possessing  at  the  same 
time,  elegance  of  construction  and  simplicity  of  action.  It  is  ope- 
rated by  foot-power. 

Fig.  I  gives  a  general  view  of  the  apparatus.  The  base  is 
divided  into  three  feet,  well  spread  out  and  making  a  firm  support. 
To  one  of  these  feet,  lengthened  for  the  purpose,  is  attached  the 
foot-pedal,  which  connects  by  a  flat  steel  spring,  called  a  pitman, 
with  a  steel  crank,  moving  a  driving-wheel,  which  is  supported  by 
a  post  rising  from  the  centre  of  the  base  and  forked  so  as  to 
provide  bearings  for  its  axle-shaft.  Above  the  driving-wheel  is  an 
upright  rod,  the  lower  portion  formed  into  a  yoke  passing  over  the 
upper  part  of  the  wheel  and  hinging  on  to  the  journal-bosses  of 
the  axle-shaft,  thus  making  what  may  be  termed  a  rocking-arm. 
Its  primary  statical  condition  is  assured  in  an  upright  position  by 
a  prolongation  beyond  the  axle-shaft  of  that  arm  of  the  yoke  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  crank  and  the  attachment  of  a  spiral  spring 
with  its  lower  end  fastened  near  the  base  of  the  apparatus.  A 
screwed  extension-joint  and  jam-nut  are  provided  in  the  vertical 
rocking-arm,  by  which  it  may  be  lengthened  and  the  driving-cord 
tightened  if  necessary.  To  the  top  of  the  rocking-arm  is  fixed  a 
right-angled  head-piece,  shown  in  detail  by  Fig.  2,  the  horizontal 
part  of  which  is  drilled  to  receive  a  stem,  upon  which  is  fastened 
a  pulley  by  a  squeeze-nut  on  a  conical  screw.  This  pulley  is 
driven  by  a  cord  passing  around  the  driving-wheel,  and  revolves 
the  stem,  the  other  end  of  which  connects  with  the  rotating  shaft 
of  a  flexible  arm.  The  head-piece  is  pivoted  and  has  free  hori- 
zontal motion,  and  the  arm  is  flexible  at  nearly  every  point  in  its 
length  of  twenty-six  inches,  being  a  rotating  spiral  within  a  fixed 
spiral  sheath.  The  hand-piece  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  flexible 
arm,  and  the  tool  fits  in  to  a  tool-holder  or  chuck,  being  held  by 
a  simple  yet  perfectly  satisfactory  arrangement,  revolving  with  the 
chuck  without  any  vibration,  and  easily  removed  in  a  moment  if 
a  change  of  tool  is  required. 


456  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

A  large  variety  of  tools  is  provided  for  this  machine,  such  as 
excavating-burrs,  drills,  burnishers,  finishing-burrs,  corundum  points, 
boxwood  disks,  wood-polishing  points,  etc.,  and  a  right-angle 
attachment  is  also  furnished,  which  can  be  fixed  to  the  hand-piece 
and  is  of  great  advantage  in  certain  operations. 

By  means  of  an  extension-treadle  the  operator  can  produce 
motion  from  either  side  of  the  patient's  chair  without  moving  the 
machine.  An  air-injector  apparatus  is  also  provided,  consisting  of 
a  rubber  bulb  or  bellows,  which  is  compressed  automatically  by  a 
simple  mechanism  connected  with  and  working  by  the  driven 
pulley.  The  air  is  forced  from  the  bulb  through  a  connecting 
rubber  tube  to  a  fixed  nozzle  at  the  hand-piece,  from  which  it  is 
thrown  into  the  cavity  of  the  tooth  under  operation,  keeping  it 
clear  of  burr-dust  and  cuttings  and  also  keeping  the  bit  cool. 

The  spring  pitman  which  connects  the  foot-pedal  with  the  crank 
is  one  of  the  novelties  of  the  machine,  giving  the  crank,  when  on 
the  "down  centre,"  an  upward  or  live  motion,  and  allowing  the 
performer  to  operate  with  perfect  ease.  It  is  set  at  such  an  angle 
as  always  to  keep  the  crank  off  the  dead  centre,  being  adjusted 
to  throw  it  above  its  centre  and  allow  greater  length  of  turn  in 
starting  from  rest. 

The  pivoted  rocking-arm  with  its  return  spring  always  recovering 
the  perpendicular  when  let  free,  constitutes  another  important 
novelty,  affording  the  operator  greatly  increased  freedom  of  motion 
and  practically  nullifying  the  termor  which  always  obtains  in  rigid 
machines,  and  communicates  itself  to  the  tool  even  with  the  greatest 
care,  raising  a  fatal  objection  to  their  use.  The  flexible  working- 
arm  is  also  a  special  feature,  bending,  curving  and  yielding  to  every 
motion,  and  allowing  the  operator  a  freedom  of  touch  which  he 
could  not  possibly  have  with  a  rigid  arm. 

The  Catling  Gun  Company,  of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  exhibits 
in  the  Main  Building  a  number  of  specimens  of  its  famous  Catling 
Gun,  invented  by  an  American,  Richard  Jordan  Catling,  in  1861-62, 
and  after  extensive  trials,  adopted  into  the  service  of  our  own 
Government  as  well  as  by  most  of  the  civilized  nations  of  the  world. 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL. 


457 


There  are  two  styles  of  gun  on  exhibition,  the  original  type 
as  first  constructed  and  a  new  design  but  recently  brought  forward, 
which  possesses  many  advantages  in  arrangement  of  details  over 
the  old  gun.  Descriptions  of  the  original  type  have  been  published 


and  are  accessible  to  the   reader.     It   is  of  the  new  gun  that  we 
propose  to  speak. 

The  gun,  as  illustrated  by  the  engraving  on  this  page,  consists 
of  five  parallel  breech-loading  rifle  barrels,  open  from  end  to  end, 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


and  grouped  about  a  central  shaft  to  which  they  are  rigidly  con- 
nected by  forward  and  rear  disks  or  plates.  The  breech  of  each 
barrel  is  chambered  to  receive  a  flanged  centre-fire  metallic-cased 
cartridge.  The  shaft  extends  back  some  distance  in  the  rear 
and  immediately  behind  the  barrels  a  cylinder  of  metal,  called  a 
carrier-block,  is  fastened  to  it,  having  on  its  exterior  surface  five 
semi-cylindrical  grooves,  cut  parallel  to  its  axis  and  forming 
trough-like  extensions  to  the  barrel  chambers.  These  are  to  take 
and  guide  the  cartridges  into  the  barrels,  and  also  to  receive  and 
discharge  the  empty  cases  after  they  are  fired.  A  prolongation 
of  this  cylinder  back  forms  another  cylinder,  called  the  lock-cylinder, 
which  carries,  in  prolongations  from  the  cartridge  grooves,  five 
long  breech-plugs  or  locks.  A  breech-casing,  rigidly  connected 
with  the  gun-carriage  by  a  screw  by  which  the  gun  may  be 
elevated  or  depressed,  covers  the  lock-cylinder,  and  through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  back  plate  of  this  breech-casing  the  rear  end  of  the  shaft 
is  journaled.  A  cylindrical  envelope  covers  the  group  of  gun-barrels 
from  muzzle  to  breech,  and  it  is  attached  to  the  gun-carriage  on 
the  lower  side  by  a  vertical  joint.  The  front  end  of  the  shaft  with 
the  front  barrel-plate  revolves  within  the  end  of  this  cylindrical 
envelope.  A  hand-crank  is  attached  directly  to  the  rear  end,  by 
which  the  shaft  with  its  group  of  barrels,  the  carrier-block  and 
the  lock-cylinder,  all  rigidly  connected  with  it,  may  be  freely 
revolved.  On  the  inner  face  of  the  breech-casing  is  arranged  a 
truncated,  wedge-shaped,  projecting,  annular  or  spiral  cam,  inclined 
back  both  ways  from  a  flat  portion,  the  apex  of  the  truncated 
wedge  pointing  towards  the  barrels,  and  against  this  cam  the  rear 
ends  of  the  breech-plugs  or  locks  bear,  being  held  in  place  by  a 
lug  from  each,  working  in  a  groove  at  the  base  of  a  cam.  Each 
lock  has  in  it  a  firing-pin  operated  by  a  spiral  main-spring. 
The  firing-pin  projects  at  each  end  beyond  the  lock,  the  front  end 
being  a  point,  and  the  rear  end  being  '  finished  with  a  knob, 
which  at  a  certain  stage  in  the  revolution  of  the  shaft  is  drawn 
back  by  a  groove  in  which  it  works,  and  then  suddenly  released, 
causing  the  front  to  enter  the  cartridge  and  explode  it.  The 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HA LL. 


459 


CARTRIDGES. 

By  the  Catling  Gun  Company,  Hartford,  Connecticut. 


breech-casing  extends  over  the  carrier-block,  covering  it,  except  a 


460  THE  ORE  A  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

portion  from  near  the  bottom  upwards  on  the  left  side,  where  it 
is  opened,  so  that  discharged  cartridge-cases  as  withdrawn  from 
the  barrels  may  drop  out  on  the  ground.  In  the  top  of  this  casing 
is  an  opening,  placed  in  the  correct  position  and  of  the  proper 
size,  for  a  single  cartridge  to  fall  through  into  one  of  the  channels 
of  the  carrier-block  when  it  revolves"  underneath.  The  upper  part 
of  this  opening  is  formed  into  a  hopper,  to  which  can  be  attached 
a  cartridge  or  feed-case,  holding  a  number  of  cartridges,  lying  in 
single  file,  one  above  the  other.  The  cam  in  the  rear  of  the  locks 
is  so  arranged  that  each  lock,  when  it  gets  in  position  behind 
the  cartridge-hopper,  is  drawn  back  to  its  full  extent  so  as  to  admit 
a  cartridge  in  front.  The  action  is  as  follows:  Turning  the  crank, 
the  shaft  and  its  appurtenances  rapidly  revolve.  Cartridge  after 
cartridge  from  the  feed-case  drops  into  its  respective  receptacle  in  the 
carrier-block  as  it  comes  under  the  hopper.  As  each  one  passes 
on  in  revolution,  the  lock  behind  it,  being  pushed  by  the  inclined 
cam,  follows  it  up,  thrusting  it  into  its  barrel,  and,  just  before 
the  shaft  has  reached  half  a  revolution,  drives  it  home  and  closes 
the  breech.  At  this  moment  the  firing-pin,  which  has  been  drawn 
back,  is  released  and  fires  the  cartridge,  the  reaction  being  resisted 
by  the  lock.  The  lock,  still  revolving  onward,  now  begins  to  with- 
draw, and  a  hooked  extractor  attached  to  it,  which  had  previously 
caught  over  the  flange  of  the  cartridge,  draws  the  shell  out, 
dropping  it  on  the  ground.  By  the  time  a  complete  revolution 
is  accomplished,  the  lock  is  back  again  all  ready  for  a  fresh 
cartridge  in  front.  The  gun  thus  fires  each  barrel  only  once  in  a 
revolution,  as  many  shots  being  fired  in  one  turn  as  there  are 
barrels.  The  working  is  very  simple.  One  man  turns  the  crank, 
and  another  supplies  the  feed-cases,  one  after  another,  as  rapidly 
as  exhausted,  and  the  operation  proceeds  indefinitely. 

The  gun  is  mounted  on  wheels  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary 
field-pieces,  or  it  may  be  placed  on  a  tripod.  In  addition  to  the 
screw  before  mentioned  for  elevating  or  depressing  the  breech, 
there  is  also  an  adjustable  arrangement  at  the  rear,  by  which  a 
limited  angular  movement  in  a  horizontal  plane  may  be  given  to 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


461 


the  gun  if  desired.     This  operates  very  prettily  by  the  centrifugal 
force  from  the  turning  of  the  handle,  making  one  movement  back 


CATLING  GUN,  OLD  STYLE. 


LIMBER  CARRIAGE. 

Ry  the  Catling  Gun  Company,  Hartford,  Connecticut. 


and   forth  for  each   turn,  the  handle  moving  in  an  ellipse   instead 
of  a  circle. 


462  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

The  details  of  construction  in  the  new  gun  have  been  very 
much  modified  from  those  in  the  old  type,  resulting  in  great 
simplicity  of  assemblage  and  more  substantial  design,  greatly 
increasing  its  endurance.  The  gun  is  very  easily  taken  to  pieces 
for  cleaning  or  repairs  by  merely  removing  the  nut  at  the  rear, 
when  the  crank  can  be  taken  off,  and  part  after  part  removed, 
the  whole  coming  to  pieces.  By  this  nut,  also,  which  is  a  set  nut, 
an  adjustment  can  be  made  at  a  moment's  notice,  in  the  length  of 
the  spaces  for  the  cartridges,  to  accommodate  the  breech-chamber 
to  cartridges  from  different  manufacturing  establishments  which 
often  differ  considerably  in  thickness  of  head.  In  the  old  type  of 
gun  this  adjustment  was  a  matter  of  considerable  trouble,  and  had 
to  be  made  at  the  front  end.  A  great  improvement  has  been 
effected  in  the  new  gun  in  the  ejecting  of  the  locks.  By  opening 
an  aperture  in  the  back  plate  of  the  breech-casing,  they  can 
easily  be  drawn  out  with  the  ringer.  If  one  gets  out  of  order, 
it  can  be  taken  out  and  the  firing  proceed  without  it,  there  being 
however  one  shot  less  for  each  turn,  and  one  cartridge  falls  to  the 
ground  undischarged. 

The  arrangement  of  direct-acting  crank  from  the  rear,  and  the 
placing  of  the  hopper  exactly  on  top  of  the  gun,  at  the  same 
time  improving  its  shape,  so  that  cartridges  may  fall  quickly 
by  gravity  without  the  necessity  of  forcing,  has  greatly  increased 
the  rapidity  of  firing,  the  new  gun  being  capable  of  firing  up  to 
twelve  hundred  shots  per  minute,  whereas  the  army  reports  claim 
only  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  shots  per  minute  with  the  old 
gun.  The  new  type  of  gun  is  very  light,  weighing  only  ninety- 
seven  pounds,  and  it  can  easily  be  carried  on  mules  or  horses 
over  rough  country  and  operated  at  short  notice. 

Guns  are  made  of  0.42,  0.43,  0.45,  0.50,  and  o.55-inch  calibre, 
and  the  larger  calibre  have  an  effective  range  of  over  two  miles.  The 
gun  is  reported  by  a  Board  of  the  War  Department  as  "capable  of 
maintaining  uninterruptedly  for  hours  a  most  destructive  fire  at  all 
distances,  from  fifty  yards  up,  being  beyond  all  question  well  adapted 
to  the  purposes  of  flank  defense  at  both  long  and  short  ranges." 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  463 

The  Miltimore  Car  Axle  Company,  of  New  York,  exhibits  a 
patent  Compound  Car  Axle,  the  invention  of  Mr.  George  W.  Milti- 
more, which  it  is  claimed  fully  meets  the  difficulties  experienced 
from  the  sliding  of  wheels  on  the  rails,  whether,  caused  by  curves, 
irregularities  in  the  track  or  differences  in  the  circumference  of 
wheels,  and  inseparable  from  the  use  of  the  ordinary  rigid  axle. 
The  improvement  commences  with  a  radical  change  from  the  ordi- 
nary arrangement,  in  that  the  axle  is  kept  stationary  while  the  wheels 
revolve,  thus  eradicating  at  once  all  tendency  to  torsional  stress. 
The  axle,  which  may  be  either  of  steel  or  cold-rolled  shafting,  is  of 
the  same  size  throughout,  and  passes  at  each  end  into  a  cast-iron 
pedestal-block,  in  which  it  is  firmly  secured  and  rendered  immovable 
by  a  horizontal  steel  bolt  passing  through  both  axle  and  block.  The 
axle  is  encased  in  a  loose  revolving  sleeve  of  wrought-iron  pipe, 
having  cast-iron  ends,  on  which  seats  are  formed  for  the  wheels, 
which  are  loosely  mounted,  each  wheel  being  held  to  gauge  on  the 
inside  by  a  shoulder  in  the  casting,  and  on  the  outside  by  a  cast-iron 
nut  screwed  to  the  end  of  the  sleeve  and  fitting  against  the  hub. 
Oscillating  cylindrical  boxes  of  brass  fit  in  between  the  sleeves  and 
the  axle,  forming  the  only  points  of  contact,  the  bearing  surface  being 
on  the  under  side.  These  boxes  are  made  with  a  curved  bearing  on 
the  outside  to  allow  them  to  adjust  themselves  freely  to  the  spring  of 
the  axle,  and  thus  insure  a  perfect  bearing  on  the  interior  for  the 
whole  length  of  the  box,  and  avoid  wearing  at  the  ends.  A  box-ring 
fits  closely  to  the  outer  half  of  the  curve,  and  the  sleeve-casting  is 
turned  to  fit  the  inner  half,  sufficient  room  being  left  at  the  ends  for 
oscillation. 

The  action  of  the  device  is  as  follows :  When  drawn  forward,  the 
wheels  in  moving,  although  loose  on  the  sleeve-bearings,  carry  the 
sleeve  round  with  them,  the  friction  being  much  greater  than  on  the 
axle-bearings;  and  on  a  straight  track  with  wheels  of  the  same 
diameter  there  is  no  motion  whatever  on  these  outer  bearings. 
When,  however,  owing  to  the  slightest  curve,  or  an  irregularity  of 
track  or  other  cause,  one  wheel  is  required  to  move  faster  than  the 
other,  instead  of  sliding  one  wheel,  as  is  the  case  with  the  ordinary 


464 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


arrangement,  either  wheel  is  perfectly  free  to  accelerate  or  retard  its 
motion  independent  of  the  other,  according  to  the  space  over  which 


2 1 

\ 


it  has  to  move.     No  tensional  strain  can  be  thrown  on  the  sleeve,  for 
if  a  wheel  should  be  forced  slightly  out  of  the  perpendicular,  as  when 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL.  465 

the  flange  strikes  the  outer  rail  of  a  curve  and  thereby  cramps  the 
hub  on  the  wheel-seat,  it  at  once  turns  the  sleeve  with  itself  and 
gains  the  necessary  increase  in  motion  at  the  opposite  hub,  where 
there  is  no  cramp. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  following  advantages  are  gained  by  the  use 
of  this  axle:  A  reduction  in  power  required  to  haul  the  train,  conse- 
quently a  saving  of  fuel ;  increased  durability  to  wheels  and  axles ; 
saving  of  wear  on  road-bed ;  increased  comfort  and  safety  to  pas- 
sengers ;  great  economy  in  lubrication ;  freedom  from  hot  boxes ;  less 
expense  for  repairs ;  and  ability  to  use  wheels  of  larger  diameter. 
The  results  of  practical  experiments  which  have  been  made  on  the 
Vermont  Central  and  other  railroads  for  considerable  lengths  of  time 
would  seem  to  justify  these  claims,  and  there  were  seven  cars 
equipped  with  these  axles  in  daily  service  on  the  West  End  Pas- 
senger Railway  in  the  Exhibition  Grounds,  operating  with  great 
success.  Trucks  with  these  wheels  have  been  running  on  the 
Vermont  Central  and  on  the  Chicago,  Dubuque  and  Minnesota 
Railroad  for  a  considerable  time,  and  the  results  give  a  durability  of, 
at  the  very  least,  double  that  of  the  rigid  wheels.  The  Miltimore 
wheels,  after  a  service  of  sixty  thousand  miles  on  roads  of  heavy 
curvature,  show  exceedingly  light  flange  wear,  evincing  an  equivalent 
saving  of  wear  on  the  rail.  It  is  stated  that  axles  now  in  service, 
running  fifteen  months,  at  a  rate  of  one"  hundred  and  fifteen  miles  per 
day,  have  consumed  but  one  pint  of  oil  per  month,  and  when  grease 
is  used  the  saving  is  still  greater.  In  addition  to  this,  the  use  of 
cotton-waste  is  entirely  dispensed  with.  A  great  advantage  exists  in 
the  facility  with  which  a  wheel  may  be  changed  and  a  new  one  sub- 
stituted, should  the  breaking  of  a  flange  or  any  other  cause  require 
it.  Two  men  with  a  jack  can  easily  remove  a  wheel  and  replace  it 
in  a  short  time  without  disturbing  the  car.  The  removal  of  the 
torsional  strain  from  the  axle  affords  greatly  increased  safety  to  the 
train  and  also  allows  the  use  of  larger  wheels,  resulting  in  a  smooth,, 
even  motion  to  the  car  and  saving  in  power  to  draw  the  train.  A- 
fast  passenger-train  of  five  cars  with  forty-inch  wheels  has  been 
running  on  the  Vermont  Central  Railroad  from  one  hundred  and 


466 


THE    GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 
I 


fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  per  day  for  eighteen  months  with  great 
success.  The  wheels  being  triply  cushioned,  the  hammering  so 
destructive  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  axle  is  very  much  reduced. 


Even  if  an  axle  should  break,  the  sleeve  acts  as  a  protection,  and  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  for  the  wheels  to  get  out  of  place.  If  all 
that  is  claimed  for  this  axle  continues  to  bear  the  test  of  practical  use, 
it  is  destined  to  effect  an  entire  revolution  in  railway  equipment. 


MA  CHINE RY  HALL. 


467 


The  Buckeye  Engine  Company,  of  Salem,  Ohio,  exhibits  one  of 
Thompson's  "Automatic  Governor  Cut-off  Engines,"  as  manufactured 
at  its  establishment,  which  deserves  close  attention  from  all  those 


interested  in  the  economic  application  of  steam.  The  consideration 
of  this  subject  involves  an  important  principle  in  the  use  of  steam 
expansively,  the  energy  being  much  more  effectively  given  out  for 


468 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  same  amount  of  force,  exerted  on  the  piston  of  an  engine,  if  the 
steam  be  used  expansively  at  a  high  pressure,  than  if  worked  full 
stroke  on  an  average  pressure,  and  less  steam  required  for  the  same 
work  in  the  former  case  than  in  the  latter.  Of  course,  taking'  the 
same  pressure  of  steam  in  both  cases,  more  work  can  be  obtained 
with  full  stroke  pressure  than  with  expansion,  but  it  is  at  a  waste  of 
steam,  and  the  question  under  consideration  is  to  do  the  amount  of 
work  required  with  the  greatest  economy.  Where  the  cost  of  fuel 
is  no  object,  certain  reasons  may  make  the  use  of  the  ordinary  engine 
working  at  full  stroke,  preferable,  but  these  need  not  be  considered 


Fin.  3 


AUTOMATIC  GOVERNOR  CUT-OFF  ENGINE.  FIG.  3. 
By  Buckeye  Engine  Co. 

here.  An  important  advantage  in  expansive  working  also  obtains  in 
wear  and  tear,  the  shocks  and  jars  to  the  engine  being  much  less 
than  if  worked  with  full  stroke  pressure. 

In  the  case  of  the  ordinary  slide-valve,  working  with  a  continuous 
motion,  there  appears  to  be  great  difficulty  in  securing  all  the  advan- 
tages of  a  cut-off,  it  being  impossible  to  give  a  full  flow  of  steam  and 
a  sudden  cut-off.  The  maximum  of  economy  requires  a  full  boiler 
pressure  to  be  carried  into  the  cylinder  at  the  commencement  of  the 
stroke,  and  maintained  up  to  the  point  of  cut-off,  and  the  cut-off  to 
be  sharp,  without  causing  a  gradual  reduction  of  the  steam-pressure 
by  what  is  called  wire-drawing.  Various  methods  have  accordingly 
been  adopted  by  means  of  valve  gear,  of  holding  the  valve  wide 


MA  CfflNER  Y  HALL.  469 


open,  and  suddenly  closing  when  required  by  a  spring.  The  Corliss 
Engine  is  an  example  of  a  very  successful  method  of  accomplishing 
this  object.  In  the  case  of  the  engine  under  consideration,  the  slide- 
valve  is  operated  full  pressure  at  full  stroke,  and  a  secondary  valve  is 
called  into  action  at  the  proper  time,  to  cut  off  the  steam  quickly 
from  a  full  pressure  to  zero.  When  this  valve  is  so  controlled  by  the 
governor  as  to  cut  off  the  steam  earlier  or  later  in  the  stroke  as 
required,  and  maintain  a  certain  desired  uniform  speed,  under  vari- 
ations of  load  and  steam  pressure,  it  becomes  an  Automatic  Cut-off, 
and  as  such  it  is  represented  in  this  engine,  the  action  being  very 
different  from  the  wire-drawing  or  throttling  engine,  where  the 
governor  performs  its  duty  by  throttling  the  steam  more  or  less,  on 
its  passage  to  its  work  in  the  main  steam-pipe. 

Our  illustrations,  Figs,  i  and  2,  engraved  on  pages  466  and  467, 
show  front  and  rear  views  of  the  engine  on  exhibition,  it  having  a 
horizontal  action,  with  a  cylinder  of  sixteen  inches  bore,  by  thirty- 
two  inches  stroke.  The  principle  involved  in  the  automatic  cut-off 
appears  to  be  the  only  true  one  for  the  highest  economy  in  the  use 
of  steam;  it  remains  that  the  practical  application  of  it  shall  be 
properly  carried  out.  It  is  claimed  by  the  makers  of  this  engine 
that  it  satisfies  all  the  conditions  necessary  for  this  economy,  and  at 
the  same  time  is  so  simple  in  construction,  as  to  be  very  little  more 
expensive  in  cost  than  an  equally  well  designed  throttling-engine, 
while  it  may  safely  be  placed  in  charge  of  any  fairly  intelligent  and 
careful  engineer.  The  peculiar  points  of  the  engine  are  the  slide- 
valve  and  the  gdvernor.  Fig.  3,  which  we  engrave  on  page  468, 
gives  a  section  of  the  former.  This  slide-valve  is  in  reality  a  small 
moving  steam-chest,  into  the  interior  of  which,  the  entire  supply  of 
live  steam  is  admitted  and  passes  from  thence  to  the  cylinder  by 
ports  near  its  end  which  are  made  to  coincide  alternately  with  the 
cylinder  ports.  The  exhaust  steam  from  the  cylinder  passes  out  into 
the  steam-chest  at  the  end  of  the  slide-valve  and  follows  on  by  ample 
passages  to  the  exhaust-pipe,  going  downward  freely  and  directly  out 
of  the  way,  and  avoiding,  even  at  the  highest  speed,  that  back 
pressure  so  often  caused  by  the  tortuous  passages  so  common  in 


470 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


many  other  valves.  The  indicator-cards  which  have  been  taken  of 
the  working  of  the  engine  show  with  what  perfection  the  valves  per- 
form all  their  functions.  The  arrangement  gives  great  advantages  in 


AUTOMATIC  GOVERNOR  CUT-OFF  ENGINE,  FIGS.  4  AND  5. 

By  Btukeyt  Engine  Cimfany. 

allowing  the  face  of  the  valves  to  be  placed  as  close  to  the  bore  of 
the  cylinder  as  a  proper  consideration  of  thickness  of  metal,  for 
strength  will  permit,  and  by  this  means  reducing  the  clearance  or 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL.  47 1 

waste  room  to  a  minimum.  The  openings  in  the  back  of  the  valve 
admitting  the  live  steam  are  fitted  with  self-packing  rings,  so  as  to 
insure  a  steam-tight  connection,  and  the  area  of  these  openings  is 
made  as  small  as  possible  consistent  with  the  proper  holding  of  the 
valve  to  its  seat,  making  it  as  nearly  balanced  as  practicable  or 
desirable.  By  removing  the  top  of  the  valve-chest  which  contains 
only  exhaust  steam,  the  working  of  the  valve  may  be  seen,  and  any 
leakage  detected  and  remedied.  The  main  valve  is  operated  by  a 
fixed  eccentric,  and  the  cut-off  valve  works  inside  of  the  main  valve, 
the  stem  passing  through  a  hollow  main  valve-stem,  and  is  operated 
by  an  adjustable  eccentric,  through  the  medium  of  a  compound  rock- 
arm  device  and  connections,  as  seen  in  Fig.  2.  A  small  rock-shaft 
works  in  a  bearing  in  the  main  rock-arm  and  moves  with  it,  making 
the  movement  of  the  cut-off  valve  relative  to  its  seat  in  the  main 
valve,  just  the  same  in  reference  to  both  time  and  extent  as  would 
occur  if  the  valve  worked  in  a  stationary  seat  and  was  attached  directly 
to  its  eccentric.  The  main  valve  eccentric  rod  works  horizontally 
and  the  cut-off  eccentric  rod  inclines  downward,  so  that  its  attach- 
ment to  its  rocker-arm  is  on  a  level,  or  nearly  so,  with  the  centre  line 
of  the  main  rock-shaft.  The  cut-off  eccentric  is  automatically 
adjusted  by  means  of  two  weighted  levers  connected  with  springs 
and  contained  in  a  circular  case  fastened  on  the  engine-shaft.  This 
regulator  or  governor  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  4  and  5,  which  we 
engrave  on  page  470,  the  former  showing  the  position  of  parts  when 
it  is  at  rest,  except  spring  D,  which  is  not  adjusted,  and  the  latter 
showing  their  position  when  the  engine  is  at  its  maximum  speed.  It 
must  be  stated,  however,  that  the  two  figures  are  for  different  gover- 
nors and  adapted  to  run  the  engine  in  opposite  directions,  one  being 
in  arrangement  the  reverse  of  the  other.  It  will  be  noticed  that  extra 
holes,  c,  c,  are  provided  in  the  case  so  that  the  same  governor  may 
be  changed  in  arrangement  in  a  short  time,  to  allow  the  engine 
to  be  run  either  way  as  desired.  When  the  speed  of  the  engine 
becomes  too  rapid,  the  centrifugal  force  overcomes  the  resistance  of 
the  springs  and  throws  the  levers  outward,  advancing  the  eccentric 
forward  on  the  engine  shaft  and  making  an  earlier  cut-off.  When 


472 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  speed  is  reduced,  the  springs  draw  the  levers  in  and  make  a  later 
cut-off  Fig.  4  shows  the  position  of  parts  for  the  latest  cut-off,  and 
Fig.  5  that  for  the  earliest  cut-off.  Set  screws  are  provided  to  allow 
adjustment  of  the  tension  on  the  springs,  which  may  be  varied  to 
suit  the  character  of  the  work  for  which  the  engine  is  required.  The 
makers  claim  great  simplicity  of  parts,  a  reduction  of  noise  in  work- 
ing to  a  minimum,  very  little  clearance  or  waste  room  in  the  ports, 
close  governing  power  and  great  economy  of  steam,  also  full  opened 


SHINGLE  AND  HEADING  MACHINE.-FRONT  VIEW. 
By  Buckeye  Engine  Company. 

indication  ports  for  all  points  of  cut-off,  and  a  free  and  unobstructed 
exhaust. 

The  Buckeye  Engine  Company  also  exhibits  one  of  J.  R.  Hall's 
self-acting  Shingle  and  Heading  Machine,  of  its  own  manufacture, 
which  appears  to  possess  considerable  merit,  and  to  fully  meet  all 
requirements  of  the  trade.  Our  illustrations,  shown  on  pages  472 
and  473,  present  front  and  rear  views  of  the  machine,  and  show  its 
manner  of  construction.  The  cutting  is  done  by  a  circular  saw 

driven  at  a  rate  of  thirteen    to    fourteen  hundred    revolutions  per 

/ 

minute,  an   automatic   device   feeding   and   returning   the   block  of 


MA  CH1NER  Y  HALL. 


473 


timber  under  operation,  and  throwing  it  back  and  forth,  so  as  to  cut 
alternate  butts  and  points,  while  at  the  same  time  a  simple  and  easily 
operated  mechanism  permits  two  or  more  butts  or  points  to  be  cut 
in  succession,  if  desired,  and  allows  the  rift  of  the  timber  to  be  kept 
vertical  and  in  line  with  the  saw,  the  sawyer  having  absolute  control 
of  the  work.  The  machine  may  be  adjusted  in  a  few  minutes  to  saw 
shingles  of  different  thicknesses  or  different  lengths  without  changing 
the  uniformity  of  the  taper  or  the  evenness  of  the  butts  and  points. 


SHINGLE  AND  HEADING  MACHINE— REAR  VIEW. 

By  Buckeye  Kngine  Company. 

It  may  also  be  arranged  to  cut  parallel  headings  without  interfering 
in  any  way  with  its  excellence  as  a  shingle  machine. 

Two  sizes  of  machines  are  built,  one  varying  from  fourteen  to 
twenty  inches  in  length  of  shingle,  with  widths  up  to  fourteen  inches, 
and  the  other  giving  lengths  of  sixteen  to  twenty-six  inches,  the 
limit  of  width  being  the  same  as  in  the  first.  Either  the  ordinary 
knife-jointer  is  furnished,  or  an  excellent  form  of  saw-jointer,  which 
it  is  claimed  increases  the  yield  for  a  given  quantity  of  timber  about 
ten  per  cent.,  requiring,  however,  an  extra  man  for  each  machine. 


474  THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

The  makers  claim  a  capacity  of  ten  to  twelve  thousand  eighteen- 
inch  shingles  per.  day  of  ten  hours,  or  twenty-five  to  thirty-five 
thousand  if  the  shingles  be  jointed  for  the  sawyer,  these  figures  being 
for  soft  wood  blocks  or  one-third  less  for  hard  wood.  I 

Messrs.  B.  &  S.  Massey,  of  Manchester,  England,  make  a  fine 
exhibit  of  Steam  Hammers,  which  present  some  peculiarities  of 
design  different  from  the  usual  steam  hammer,  and  appear  to 
operate  with  great  efficiency.  They  are  double  acting  and  work 
without  jar  or  shock,  giving  blows  dead  or  elastic,  and  of  any 
degreee  of  intensity,  rapidity  of  action  or  length  of  stroke  desired, 
the  larger  hammers  being  controlled  generally  by  hand,  and  the 
smaller  ones  arranged  so  as  to  work  both  self-acting  and  by  hand. 
The  action  is  therefore  completely  under  control,  and  can  be  varied 
according  to  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done.  Generally  with  self- 
acting  hammers  there  is  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  heavy 
"dead"  blow  so  often  required;  but  in  these,  by  means  of  a  hand- 
lever  connected  directly  with  the  valve,  the  hammer  may  be 
changed  instantly  from  self-acting  to  hand-working,  and  perfectly 
''dead"  blows  delivered  at  any  time  without  the  least  delay.  Their 
small  hammers  are  particularly  intended  for  smiths'  work,  being 
applicable  to  the  lightest  kinds  of  forgings,  such  as  usually  done 
by  hand,  and  their  use  is  rapidly  replacing  that  of  hand-work, 
resulting  in  great  economy  of  labor,  fuel  and  material  even  in  the 
smallest  smith-shops.  The  hammer  shown  by  Fig.  I  is  of  a  class 
comprising  several  sizes,  and  exceedingly  convenient  and  easy  to 
operate  with,  allowing  ready  access  on  three  sides,  and  owing  to 
the  double  standards  on  the  fourth  side,  with  opening  between 
them,  permitting  long  bars  to  be  worked  on  the  anvil  in  either 
direction.  The  arrangement  for  working  the  valves  in  these  ham- 
mers, as  already  stated,  is  a  combination  of  self-acting  and  hand- 
worked gearing,  and  it  is  different  from  that  ordinarily  employed, 
being  without  the  usual  cams,  or  sliding-wedge.  As  the  hammer 
rises  and  falls  when  in  action,  a  hardened  roller  on  the  back  of 
the  head  slides  on  the  face  of  a  curved  lever,  which  rotates 
about  a  pin  near  its  upper  end,  and  is  held  by  a  spiral  spring 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


475 


always  in  position  against  the  roller.     At  every  movement  of  the 
hammer   this  lever   operates  a   valve-spindle  and   regulating-valve, 


DOUBLE-ACTING  STEAM  HAMMER. 

By  B.  &•  S.  Afassey,  Manchester,  England. 


the  length  traveled  by  the  hammer  being  controlled  by  another 
lever  attached  to  the  fulcrum-pin  of  the  curved  lever,  and  by 
which  this  pin  may  be  raised  or  lowered,  and  the  points  at  which 


476 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  steam  is  admitted  or  allowed  to  escape  varied  at  pleasure. 
A  guard  plate  and  catch  permit  this  governing  lever  to  be  fixed 
at  any  point  desired.  The  regulating-valve  is  hollow  through  the 


STEAM  HAMMER,  WITH  TREADLE. 

By  B.  &•  S.  Afnssey,  Manchester,  England. 


centre,  being  really  a  double  piston  opened  at  both  ends,  with  a 
number  of  ports  for  the  steam  to  enter  and  escape,  arranged  all 
around  on  the  sides,  and  holding  it  in  perfect  equilibrium.  The 
ports  open  and  close  very  quickly,  and  allow  great  rapidity  and 


MACHINERY  HALL. 


477 


LARGE-SIZE  STEAM  HAMMER. 

By  B.  &•  S.  Masssey,  Manchester,  England. 


force  of  action  to  the  hammer,  as  many  as  two  hundred  and  fifty 


478 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


blows  per  minute  being  struck  with  a  pressure  of  from  forty  to 
sixty  pounds,  with  the  length  of  the  stroke  entirely  under  com- 
mand from  a  few  inches  to  nearly  two  feet,  and  variable  without 


checking    the 
machine. 

Ramsbot- 
t  o  m '  s  Steel- 
Packing  Rings 
are  used  on 
the  hammer- 
piston,  which 
is  forged  in 
one  solid  piece 
with  the  rod, 
and  the  head  is 
of  hammered 
scrap-iron. 
The  anvil- 
block  is  a 
heavy  casting 
made  separate 
from  the  base 
and  turned  to 
fit  a  bored  hole 
in  the  base 
plate  so  as  to 
assure  its  be- 
ing kept  to  its 
true  position. 
Fig.  2  repre- 
sents a  light 
hammer,  only 


STEAM  STAMP. 
By  B.  &  S.  Afassey,  Manchester,  England. 


a  half  a  hun- 
dred weight, 
intended  for 
forging  files, 
bolts,  cutlery, 
etc.,  and  ope- 
rating with  a 
foot-treadle,  so 
that  the  work- 
man may  have 
«both  hands 
free  for  the 
proper  manip- 
ulation of  his 
work.  The 
foot-treadle  is 
omitted  in 
some  cases. 
This  hammer 
has  been  work- 
ed up  to  a 
speed  of  four 
hundred  blows 
per  minute. 
Fig.  3  illus- 
trates one  of 
the  large  size 
hammers  run- 
ning up  to  a 


ton  or  more  in  weight.  Fig.  4  represents  a  steam  stamp  intended 
especially  for  die-forging,  and  regulated  either  by  the  foot  or  hand. 
When  steam  is  turned  on,  the  hammer  rises  to  the  top  of  stroke 


MACHINERY  HALL.  479 

and  keeps  that  position  until  directed  downwards  by  the  action 
of  the  operator.  It  then  descends  with  a  single  dead  blow,  per- 
forming its  work,  and  rises  again  into  its  original  position, 
which  it  retains  until  the  workman  is  ready  for  another  stroke. 
It  is  wonderful  how  many  articles  formerly  so  expensive  are  now 
made  by  die-forging,  being  stamped  out  from  the  red-hot  iron 
nearly  ready  for  use,  requiring  in  most  cases  very  little  work  to 
fit  them  up,  and  resulting  in  great  saving  of  labor.  Bolts,  rivets, 
nuts,  screw-keys,  wrenches  and  other  tools,  and  even  such  articles 
as  sewing-machine  shuttles,  are  made  in  this  way. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cars  and  in  heavy  railroad  timber-work 
generally,  the  joining  of  the  frames,  instead  of  being  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  mortise  and  tenon,  as  in  ordinary  building,  is  done 
by  letting  the  ends  of  the  cross-timbers  into  the  longitudinal  ones, 
thus  giving  much  greater  strength  at  the  point  of  junction.  The 
depression  or  groove  in  which  the  end  of  the  cross-timber  rests  is 
technically  called  a  gain,  and  a  machine  that  is  used  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  these  grooves  is  called  a  Gaining  Machine.  Messrs. 
C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.,  of  Norwich,  Connecticut,  exhibit  a  timber 
Gaining  Machine  of  their  own  manufacture,  which  has  attracted 
considerable  attention  and  does  them  great  credit.  The  engraving 
on  page  480  gives  a  fair  view  of  the  machine,  which,  being  intended 
for  the  heaviest  kind  of  work,  has  been  made  strong,  heavy  and 
substantial  in  every  part,  its  weight  being  five  thousand  pounds. 
It  is  furnished  with  a  table,  to  which  the  timber  to  be  operated 
on  is  clamped,  this  table  moving  on  ways  and  having  adjustable 
stops  to  indicate  the  points  at  which  gains  are  to  be  made.  A 
revolving  cutter-head  is  attached  to  a  frame  joined  by  sliding-gibs 
to  a  standard  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  table,  and  an  arrange- 
ment of  gearing  and  belting  is  provided  for  the  necessary  rotary 
motion.  The  cutter-head  is  made  in  two  sections,  which  are 
adjustable  longitudinally  on  its  shaft  to  any  width  of  gain  required, 
the  desired  depth  being  regulated  by  means  of  a  balanced  lever 
set  at  the  proper  elevation  by  adjustable  stops.  The  head  and 
frame  at  the  will  of  the  operator  are  made  to  move  transversely 


480 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


across  the  table,  reversing  automatically  and  stopping  after  return. 
Jn  operation,  the   timber  being  clamped  to   the   table,  the  cutter- 


head  is  set  by  the  lever  at  the  proper  elevation  indicated  by  the 
stops;  a  lever  in  front  throws  the  feed  in  gear,  and  the  head  moves 
across  the  timber,  cutting  the  gain  and  returning  to  its  first 


MACHINERY  HALL.  481 

position,  where  it  stops  automatically.  The  table  is  then  moved 
on  its  ways  to  the  point  marked  for  the  next  gain,  and  the  operation 
is  repeated.  The  machine  is  readily  controlled  by  the  operator, 
and  after  being  once  adjusted  for  any  particular  class  of  work  it 
becomes  almost  automatic  in  its  action.  The  points  of  excellence 
claimed  for  this  machine  by  the  makers  are,  its  extreme  simplicity, 
combined  with  every  requisite  for  accomplishing  its  desired  purpose; 
the  great  ease  with  which  every  motion  is  controlled,  even  when 
operating  on  the  heaviest  class  of  work,  and  the  automatic  pre- 
cision with  which  this  work  is  performed.  Its  peculiar  feature  is 
the  reciprocating  motion  given  to  the  revolving  cutter-head. 

We  have  mentioned  before  the  fine  exhibit  of  astronomical  instru- 
ments made  by  Messrs.  Fauth  &  Co.,  of  Washington,  D.  C,   and 
we  refer  to  this  exhibit  again  to  call    attention  to  an  exceedingly 
perfect  Altitude    and    Azimuth  Instrument    which    has    been    pur- 
chased by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  Department   for   trian- 
gulation  and  determination  of  azimuth.     The  altitude  of   a  star  or 
other  body  is  its  height  above  the    horizon  expressed  in  degrees, 
the  greatest  altitude  of  course  being  ninety  degrees.     The  azimuth 
is  the  angle  made  by  the  meridian  and  the  vertical  circle  in  which 
a  heavenly  body  is   situated,  and    is  measured   along   the   horizon 
for  the  north  or   south    towards  the   west,  according  as  the  north 
or  south  pole  is  elevated  above  the  horizon,  to  the  point  where  a 
circle  passing  through   the  zenith  and   the  body  cuts  the  horizon. 
The  instrument  of  which  we  speak,  and   which  is  represented  by 
the  engraving  on  page  483,  from  the  nature  of  its  construction  is 
employed   in  the  measurement  of  vertical   and   horizontal   angles, 
and  may  be  used    as  transit  for  time  observation,  also  for  double 
zenith    distances  for   latitude,  and  will    determine   the  astronomical 
position    of   any   station.       For    geodetic    purposes    it   is    used   in 
primary  triangulation  to  measure  the  angles  with  the  utmost  pre- 
cision.     It  has  two  graduated   circles  and  a  telescope,  the  planes 
of  the  circles  being  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  one  called  the 
azimuth  circle   being  connected  with  a  solid  support,  on  which  it 
is  leveled  and  kept   in  a  horizontal  position,  and  the  other  called 


482  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

the  altitude  circle,  which  is  mounted  on  a  horizontal  axis,  which 
also  carries  the  telescope  like  a  transit.  The  design  and  construc- 
tion of  the  instrument  are  quite  novel,  combining  all  the  advantages 
of  a  repeating  instrument  without  its  defects.  The  horizontal 
limit,  which  is  thirteen  inches  in  diameter,  is  graduated  to  five 
minutes,  and  may  be  read  off  by  means  of  three  microscopes 
at  different  points  to  the  nearest  single  second,  these  microscopes 
being  illuminated  by  prisms  which  derive  their  light  from  over- 
head, and  are  effective  for  any  position  of  the  circle.  This  circle 
may  be  shifted  if  desired,  so  as  to  bring  different  parts  of  the 
graduation  under  the  microscopes,  and  thereby  eliminate  any  error 
or  eccentricity  in  division.  The  vertical  circle  is  ten  inches  in 
diameter,  and  is  graduated  the  same  as  the  horizontal  circle,  but 
is  read  by  two  microscopes,  a  very  sensitive  level  reading  to 
single  seconds  of  arc  being  affixed  to  the  microscopes  to  note  any 
deviation  from  the  vertical.  This  circle  may  also  be  shifted  for 
position.  Both  circles  are  entirely  free  from  clamps,  these  being 
attached  to  the  centre,  thereby  avoiding  the  great  risk  of  strain. 
The  clamps  and  slow  motion  have  differential  screws.  For  time 
observation  a  striding  level  of  the  utmost  perfection  is  supplied, 
which  is  set  over  the  hard  pivots  of  the  telescope  axis,  so  as  to 
note  any  deviation  from  the  meridian,  the  level  being  ground  to 
a  radius  of  about  two  thousand  feet,  each  division  of  its  graduation 
representing  a  second  of  arc.  Both  this  and  the  level  over  the 
microscopes  of  the  vertical  circle  have  air-chambers  to  correct  the 
bubbles  for  changes  of  temperature. 

The  Telescope  has  a  focal  length  of  twenty-four  inches  and  a 
clear  aperture  of  two  and  a  half  inches,  its  glass  being  of  uncom- 
mon excellence,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  of  its  showing  the  com- 
panion star  of  Polaris.  The  microscope  on  the  eye-piece  measures 
to  the  one-hundred  thousandth  part  of  an  inch,  and  is  used  for 
determining  differences  of  zenith  distances  of  stars  in  computing 
latitudes.  For  convenience  in  observing  near  the  zenith,  a  rect- 
angular eye-piece  is  provided.  A  lamp  is  placed  opposite  the 
microscopes  of  the  vertical  circle  to  throw  light  through  the  axis 


MA  CHINE R  Y  HALL. 


483 


down  to  the  field  and  render  the  cross  lines  visible.     This  instrument 
is  well  entitled  to  the  award  which  it   has  received,  not   only   for 


ALTITUDE  AND  AZIMUTH  INSTRUMENT. 

By  Messrs.  Fauth  &  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 


novelty  of  design,  but  for  execution  and  workmanship,  fully  confirming 
the  encomiums  which  have  been  passed  on  it  by  so  many  astronomers. 


484 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


One  of  the  most  novel  inventions  that  American  ingenuity  has 


GUNPOWDER  PILE-DRIVER 

By  Thomas  Show,  Philadelphia. 


brought  into  practical  use  during  the  past  few  years  is  the  Gun- 


MACHINERY  HALL.  485 

powder  Pile-driver  of  Mr.  Thomas  Shaw,  of  Philadelphia,  and  well 
worthy  of  its  place  in  the  great  Exhibition.  The  originality  con- 
sists in  the  adaptation  of  a  material  as  a  motive  power,  ordinarily 
so  violent  and  destructive  in  its  action  as  to  be  generally  considered 
almost  uncontrollable.  Yet  machines  for  driving  piles  by  the  use 
of  gunpowder  have  been  constructed  under  Mr.  Shaw's  patent,  and 
have  been  in  practical  use  in  various  parts  of  the  country  for 
several  years  with  the  greatest  success,  demonstrating  high  economy 
and  efficiency. 

The  Machine  is  constructed  of  a  strong  frame-work  of  upright 
timbers  with  inclined  braces,  formed  into  a  ladder  in  the  rear,  the 
whole  stiffened  by  horizontal  struts  and  diagonal  ties  between.  On 
the  inner  opposing  faces  of  the  uprights,  guides  are  formed,  in 
which  a  steel  or  iron  gun  and  a  ram  move  vertically.  The  gun 
rests  on  the  top  of  the  pile,  being  recessed  on  its  under  face  for 
this  purpose,  and  it  is  bored  in  its  upper  end  to  receive  a  plunger 
or  piston,  fitting  nearly  air-tight,  which  is  fixed  to  and  projects 
below  the  ram  placed  above.  The  upper  end  of  the  ram  is  also 
bored  to  receive  a  fixed  pistoij  projecting  below  a  cross-head  at 
the  top  of  the  guides,  creating  an  air-cushion  to  check  the  upward 
movement  of  the  ram  should  it  be  subjected  to  the  force  of  an 
excessive  charge  of  powder.  In  the  rear  of  the  uprights  and  placed 
parallel  to  them,  running  their  whole  length,  are  powerful  double 
friction- brakes,  operated  by  a  compound  lever  near  the  foot  of  the 
machine,  and  used  to  check  and  hold  the  ram  at  any  required  point 
of  elevation. 

For  expeditious  working  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  double-drum 
hoisting-engine  in  connection  with  the  machine,  and  when  so  used 
the  operation  of  driving  proceeds  as  follows :  A  wooden  block  is 
placed  across  the  mouth  of  the  gun  and  the  ram  and  gun  are  hoisted 
simultaneously  by  one  drum,  which  holds  the  gun,  while  the  friction- 
break  is  used  to  hold  the  ram.  The  pile  to  be  driven  is  now  raised 
to  a  vertical  position  by  the  second  drum,  and  lowered  in  place  until 
its  foot  rests  on  the  ground.  The  gun  is  then  lowered  upon  the  top 
of  the  pile,  keeping  it  firmly  in  place ;  and  the  block  of  wood  being 


486  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

removed,  a  cartridge  is  dropped  into  the  bore.  The  break  is  now 
released,  allowing  the  plunger  to  fall.  On  entering  the  bore  it 
starts  the  pile  downward,  as  in  the  ordinary  pile-driver,  and  an 
explosion  of  the  cartridge  immediately  following,  the  motion  of  the 
pile  is  vastly  increased,  the  ram  being  at  the  same  time  projected 
upward,  to  be  arrested  by  the  application  of  the  friction-brake.  A 
second  cartridge  is  now  introduced,  and  the  ram  released  as  before, 
resulting  in  another  explosion,  which  drives  the  pile  still  further, 
projecting  the  ram  again  upward.  This  operation  may  be  repeated 
with  great  rapidity  as  often  as  necessary  to  force  the  pile  to  the 
proper  depth.  The  plunger  by  its  sudden  descent  into  the  gun 
compresses  the  confined  air  into  a  narrow  stratum  or  cushion, 
preventing  actual  contact  of  the  metal  and  'at  the  same  time  gene- 
rating heat,  which  fires  the  cartridge,  the  force  of  the  powder  being 
assisted  by  the  expansive  power  of  the  air  under  the  additional 
heat,  and  the  principles  of  the  hot-air  engine  called  into  action. 
The  combination  of  all  the  forces  developed  creates  an  immense 
power,  which  pushes  the  pile  down  at  the  same  time  that  it  over- 
comes the  momentum  of  the  ram  and  projects  it  back  to  its 
original  position. 

With  this  machine,  by  successive  explosions  of  cartridges,  each 
composed  of  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  common  blasting- 
powder,  a  pile  of  forty  feet  in  length  and  fourteen  inches  in 
diameter  may  be  forced  its  entire  length  into  firm  ground  in  one 
minute  of  time  without  the  slightest  injury  to  the  timber,  and 
entirely  obviating  the  necessity  of  banding  the  head  before  driving. 
There  appears  to  be  no  blow  or  concussion,  the  cushion  or  stratum 
of  air  in  the  gun  acting  as  an  elastic  medium,  and  the  pile  being, 
as  it  were,  forced  into  the  ground  as  if  by  hydraulic  pressure, 
instead  of  being  pounded  down  as  by  the  old  methods.  The 
sound  condition  in  which  the  pile  is  preserved  gives  it  greater 
sustaining  power  and  lessens  liability  to  decay.  A  large  number  of 
piles  have  been  driven  by  this  machine  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner  at  the  improvement  works  of  the  United  States  Naval 
Station,  League  Island,  Philadelphia,  both  in  the  water  and  on  shore. 


MA CHINERY  HALL.  487 

In  wharf-work  the  superior  alignment  of  piles  driven  by  this 
method  over  the  old  plan  is  a  great  advantage,  very  much  facili- 
tating the  work  of  capping  and  reducing  the  cost  in  labor  and 
material.  The  machine  possesses  great  simplicity  of  construction, 
controllability  and  readiness  of  manipulation,  rapidity  of  work,  and 
economy  and  efficiency  of  power. 

The  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  with  the  same  spirit  which  characterized  its  exhibit 
at  Vienna,  makes  an  exceedingly  interesting  and  instructive  display, 
in  Machinery  Hall,  of  that  high  class  of  tools  for  which  it  has 
achieved  so  great  a  reputation.  These  tools  have  chiefly  developed 
from  the  requirements  of  the  Company's  general  manufacturing 
business,  which  is  conducted  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  they  may 
therefore  be  said  to  represent  the  results  of  actual  experience.  In 
their  construction,  the  uses  for  which  each  machine  is  intended 
have  been  well  kept  in  view  and  every  effort  made  to  perfectly 
satisfy  all  requirements.  As  evidence  of  the  character  of  work 
which  these  machines  will  execute  we  may  mention  that  the  firm 
has  in  its  regular  business  manufactured  over  two  hundred  thousand 
Wilcox  &  Gibb's  Sewing  Machines,  which  uniformly  attest  its 
excellence. 

Our  first  illustration,  Fig.  I,  on  page  488,  represents  the  Company's 
Universal  Grinding  Machine,  an  exceedingly  useful  tool  for  performing 
a  great  variety  of  operations  in  grinding  by  the  use  of  solid  emery- 
or  corundum-wheels,  being  especially  adapted  for  the  grinding  of 
soft  or  hardened  spindles,  arbors,  cutters — either  straight  or  angular — 
reamers,  and  standards;  also,  for  grinding  out  straight  and  taper  holes, 
standard  rings,  hardened  boxes,  jewelers'  rolls,  etc.  By  means  of 
an  additional  movable  table,  adjustable  by  a  tangent  screw  and 
graduated  arc,  straight  and  curved  taper-grinding  may  be  performed 
with  the  centres  of  the  machine  always  in  line.  The  work  may 
be  revolved  upon  dead  centres  or  otherwise,  and  the  grinding-wheel 
may  be  moved  over  the  work  at  any  angle,  producing  any  taper 
required.  Graduated  arcs  are  provided  for  grinding  of  taper  holes 
and  angular  cutters.  Wheels  may  be  used  from  one-fourth  inch 


488 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


to  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  feed  works  and  slides  of  the 
machine  are  thoroughly  protected  from  the  entrance  of  grit  or  dust. 
A  special  chuck  is  provided  to  hold  work  in  which  holes  are 
required  to  be  ground.  The  spindle  and  boxes  of  the  machine 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."] 


UNIVERSAL   GRINDING    MACHINE. 

By  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Co. 


\M«cM*try  Halt. 


are  of  cast  steel  hardened  and  ground.  Our  engraving  shows  also 
the  overhead  works,  consisting  of  a  drum,  tight  and  loose  pulleys, 
one  iron  pulley  for  driving  the  work  and  grinding-wheel,  and 
adjustable  hangers  with  self-oiling  boxes.  The  weight  of  the 
whole,  including  the  overhead  works,  is  about  two  thousand 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL. 


489 


pounds.     This   machine  was    purchased  by    a    prominent   firm    in 
Alsace. 

Fig.  2,  shows  the  No.  I  Screw  Machine  made  by  this  firm, 
together  with  the  overhead  works,  the  whole  weighing  about  four- 
teen hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  By  this  machine  may  be  manu- 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  f8?6."] 


SCREW  MACHINE. 

By  Brown  &  SHarpe  Manufacturing  Co. 


\Machwery  Hall. 


factured  all  kinds  of  screws  and  studs  such  as  usually  required  in 
a  machine-shop,  and  nuts,  may  be  drilled,  tapped  and  one  side  faced 
up;  also  many  parts  of  sewing-machines,  cotton  machinery,  gas- 
and  steam-fittings  may  be  made  at  great  reduction  in  time 
and  labor.  It  is  claimed  by  the  makers  that  as  many  screws 
can  be  made  by  one  man  with  this  machine  as  by  three  to 


49° 


THE    GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


five  men  on  as  many  engine-lathes,  and  with  more  uniformity 
in  size.  The  size  of  hole  through  spindle  is  one  and  a  quarter 
inches,  and  that  in  revolving  head  one  and  one-sixteenth  inches, 


UNIVERSAL  MILLING  MACHINE. 

By  tht  Brovm  &•  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 

the  length  that  can  be  milled  being  six  inches.  Smaller  sizes  of 
the  Screw  Machines  are  also  made;  one  size,  No.  3,  being  for 
the  manufacture  of  screws  used  in  sewing-machines,  fire-arms,  etc.; 
and  another,  No.  4,  for  still  smaller  work,  such  as  screws  for  clock- 
makers,  etc.  The  last  machine  has  a  patented  device  for  opening 


MA  CHINER  Y  HALL. 


491 


and  closing  the  jaws  of  the  chuck  which  holds  the  wire  from 
which  the  screws  are  made,  allowing  the  operation  to  be  performed 
in  an  instant  without  stopping,  and  effecting  great  saving  of  time 
when  making  small  screws.  It  is  often  desirable,  in  threading 


FOLDING  AND  GUMMING  ENVELOPE  MACHINE. 

By  S.  Raynor  &  Co. 

screws  and  in  tapping,  to  cut  the  thread  up  to  the  shoulder  or  to 
a  given  point,  or  to  run  the  tap  in  to  a  shoulder  or  a  given 
distance,  and  positively  no  further.  With  the  ordinary  tools  this 
operation  is  quite  difficult,  causing  great  risk  of  breaking  the 
threading-tool  or  injuring  the  shoulder  of  the  screw.  By  means 
of  a  patent  die-holder,  however,  manufactured  by  the  firm,  for  use 


492  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

in  the  revolving  heads  of  these  machines,  the  matter  can  be  accom- 
plished without  special  skill  of  any  risk  of  damage.  Special  tools 
are  also  furnished,  if  required,  for  making  screws  of  any  particular 
form  or  design  differing  from  those  usually  made. 

Fig.  3,  on  page  490,  shows  the  Universal  Milling  Machine  of  this 
Company,  a  tool  that  was  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1867,  attracting 
marked  attention  and  securing  a  very  high  award;  again  exhibited 
at  Vienna  in  1873,  winning  unusual  distinction,  and  now  coming 
forward  at  our  own  great  Exhibition. 

We  close  this  department  of  our  work  with  an  illustration  on 
page  491  of  a  machine  exhibited  by  Messrs.  S.  Raynor  &  Co.,  of 
New  York.  It  is  a  machine  for  Folding  and  Gumming  Envelopes. 
In  this  machine  the  envelopes  are  not  cut  out  from  the  web; 
they  are  cut  previously  by  steel  dies,  after  a  fashion  of  paper 
collars.  The  shaped  envelopes  are  placed  in  packages  on  a  bed- 
plate. Over  this  plate  is  a  gummer,  a  die  on  a  revolving  shaft, 
the  shaft  working  on  two  supports,  with  a  vertical  motion.  As  the 
shaft  revolves,  the  die,  on  the  upward  motion  of  the  guides,  comes 
in  contact  with  a  roller  covered  with  gum,  and  on  the  downward 
motion  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  edge  of  the  upper  cover  of 
the  envelope,  with  which  it  corresponds  in  shape,  and  transfers 
the  gum  to  the  envelope. 


PART  IV. 


HORTICULTURAL 


AGRICULTURAL  HALLS. 


E  INTERNATIONAL  EXfflBITIO 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS. 


much  has 
been  written 
in  class  journals  on 
the  subjects  of  Hor- 
ticulture and  Agri- 
culture that  these 
departments  will  be 
disposed  of  in  the 
briefest  manner  pos- 
sible. The  readers 
to  whom  these 
branches  of  industry 
are  most  interesting 
have  already  fami- 
liarized themselves, 
by  the  reports  of 
magazines  and 
ENTRANCE,  HORTICULTURAL  HALL.  newspaper  corres- 

pondents,  with  the  general  and   special  exhibits    made  during  the 

course  of  the  Exhibition.     The  exhibit  in  Horticultural  Hall  was 

495 


49<5 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


a  disappointment  to  all— the  most  attractive  portion  of  it  being 
the  exhibition  of  English  Rhododendrons,  which  was  held  in  a 
marquee  close  to  the  Hall  in  the  month  of  July. 

Horticultural  Hall  is  certainly  the  finest  building  in  the  grounds, 
and  Philadelphia  may  congratulate  herself  that  this  building  will 
remain  after  the  Exhibition  is  over.  The  building  was  erected  by 
an  appropriation  made  by  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  at  a  cost  of 
less  than  $200,000:  all  this  amount  was  not  required,  and  by  an 

Act  of  Coun- 
cils the  surplus 
was  transferred 
to  the  credit  of 
Machinery 
Hall,  for  which 
$800,000   was 
appropriated 
by  the  city  of 
Philadelphia, 
as  this  had  cost 
more  than  the 
appropriation. 
The   Horticul- 
tural   Hall     is 
located    on 
Lansdowne 
Terrace,a  short 
distance  north 

of  the  Main  Building  and  Art  Gallery,  and  has  a  commanding 
view  of  the  Schuylkill  River  and  the  northwestern  portion  of  the 
city.  The  design  is  in  the  Mauresque  style  of  architecture  of  the 
twelfth  century,  the  principal  materials  externally  being  iron  and 
glass.  The  length  of  the  building  is  383  feet;  width,  193  feet, 
and  height  to  the  top  of  the  lantern,  72  feet. 

The  main  floor  is  occupied  by  the  central  conservatory,  230  by 
80  feet,  and  55  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  lantern   170  feet  long, 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS.      497 

20  feet  wide,  and  14  feet  high.  Running  entirely  around  this  con- 
servatory, at  a  height  of  20  feet  from  the  floor,  is  a  gallery  5  feet 
wide.  On  the  north  and  south  sides  of  this  principal  room  are 
four  forcing  houses  for  the  propagation  of  young  plants,  each  of 
them  100  by  30  feet,  covered  with  curved  roofs  of  iron  and  glass. 
Dividing  the  two  forcing  houses  in  each  of  these  sides  is  a  vesti- 
bule 30  feet  square.  At  the  ,  centre  of  the  east  and  west  ends  are 
similar  vestibules,  on  either  side  of  which  are  the  restaurants, 
reception  room,  offices  etc.  From  the  vestibules  ornamental  stair- 
ways lead  to  the  internal  galleries  of  the  conservatory,  as  well  as 
to  the  four  external  galleries^each  100  feet  long  and  10  feet  wide, 
which  surmounts  the  roofs  of  the  forcing  houses.  The  external 
galleries  are  connected  with  a  grand  promenade,  formed  by  the 
roofs  of  the  rooms  on  the  ground  floor,  which  has  a  superficial 
area  of  1,800  square  yards. 

The  east  and  west  entrances  are  approached  by  flights  of  blue- 
marble  steps  from  terraces  80  by  20  feet,  in  the  centre  of  each  of 
which  stands  an  open  kiosque  20  feet  in  diameter.  The  angles  of 
the  main  conservatory  are  adorned  with  eight  ornamental  fountains. 
The  corridors  which  connect  the  conservatory  with  the  surrounding 
rooms  open  fine  vistas  in  every  direction. 

In  the  basement,  which  is  of  fire-proof  construction,  are  the 
kitchen,  store-rooms,  coal-houses,  ash-pits,  heating  arrangements  etc. 

The  illustration  on  page  495  shows  the  entrance  of  either  east 
or  west,  both  being  alike ;  the  engravings  on  page  496  are  sketches 
from  the  forcing  houses.  On  page  498  we  engrave  an  interior 
view  of  Horticultural  Hall,  prominently  in  the  foreground  of  which 
is  the  fountain  by  Miss  Margaret  S.  Foley,  who  was  selected  by  the 
Commissioners  for  this  high  compliment.  Miss  Foley  has  gained 
a  wide-spread  reputation  for  busts  in  marble,  and  for  many  beau- 
tiful conceptions  in  relief,  a  method  of  execution  which  is  much 
admired  when  it  comes  from  her  hands.  It  is  said  that  the  foun- 
tain was  originally  intended  for  Chicago,  but  the  great  conflagration 
in  that  city  caused  the  subscribers  to  withdraw,  having  first  obtained 
Miss  Foley 's  cordial  consent  to  the  withdrawal.  It  was  then  in 


498 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


plaster,  but  when  the  International  Exhibition  was  projected,  she 
decided  to  carry  out  the  idea  in  marble,  and  send  it  to  the  Exhi- 
bition as  the  best  she  had  to  offer  to  the  land  of  her  nativity. 
The  fountain  represents  a  vase  bound  with  acanthus-leaves  and 
rising  from  a  rocky  base.  On  the  base  three  lovely  children,  who 


INTERIOR,  HORTICULTURAL  HALL. 


have  just  discovered  this  beautiful  bathing-place,  are  preparing  to 
bathe.  One,  in  the  exuberance  of  his  spirits,  has  seized  a  conch  - 
shell  horn,  and  is  blowing  it  lustily  to  call  his  friends  to  enjoy  and 
participate  in  the  sport.  The  other  two,  a  boy  and  girl,  are 
evidently  having  their  first  experience,  and  the  eagerness  and 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL   HALLS.     499 


confidence  of  the  boy,  and  the  shrinking  timidity  of  the  little  girl 


:"^C 

HORTICULTURAL  HALL 


V. 


whom  he  is  encouraging  to  take  her  first  plunge,  are  well  expressed. 


5oo 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  fountain  has  received  the  approval  of  art-critics  both  at  home 
and  abroad. 


"The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."} 


[Horticultural  Hall. 


Many  beautiful  examples  of  the  adaptability  of  iron  for  interior 
and  exterior  ornament,  were  exhibited  by  the  Mott  Iron  Company, 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS.    501 

of  New  York — each  niche  in  the  interior  possessed  replicas  of 
classic  sculpture,  of  which  we  engrave  a  single  specimen  on  page 
500.  We  also  engrave  on  pages  502,  504,  505,  507  and  509  a 
jardiniere,  a  garden-chair,  seat,  table,  and  table-top,  and  flower-stand, 
which  are  most  creditable  to  this  eminent  firm,  whose  articles  of 
artistic  manufacture  were  to  be  found  in  the  Main  Building,  and 
scattered  throughout  the  grounds.  We  also  engrave  on  page  499 
a  view  of  Horticultural  Hall,  as  seen  from  the  bridge  across  the 
ravine. 

Agricultural  Hall  stands  north  of  the  Horticultural  Building, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  romantic  ravine  crossed  by  a 
bridge.  It  consists  of  a  nave  eight  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long, 
crossed  at  right  angles  by  three  transepts,  each  five  hundred  and 
forty  feet  long.  The  framework  of  nave  and  transepts  is  a  suc- 
cession of  slight  and  extremely  pointed  Gothic  arches  of  wood. 
The  interior  resembles  that  of  an  immense  Gothic  cathedral,  but 
the  effect  has  been  injured  by' a  multitude  of  slight  and  ineffective 
columns.  The  illustrations  which  we  engrave  on  pages  512  and 
513  will  be  readily  recognized  by  those  who  have  visited  Agri- 
cultural Hall. 

If  we  are  to  judge  of  the  agricultural  importance  of  a  country 
by  the  area  appropriated  to  it  in  the  inclostire  of  the  Exhibition 
park,  we  should  be  not  mistaken. 

The  United  States  of  America  have  a  territory  as  large  as  the 
European  continent.  Eleven-twentieths  of  the  whole  area  occupied 
as  farms  are  cultivated.  (Statistics  of  1870.)  The  farms  represent 
a  value  of  $10,000,000,000.  The  agricultural  implements  are  esti- 
mated at  a  value  of  $337,000,000,  the  value  of  the  live-stock  rises  to 
the  enormous  amount  of  $1,525,000,000,  and  this,  with  the  agri- 
cultural production,  amounts  to  more  than  $2,000,000,000  per 
annum. 

This  country,  which  at  the  beginning  of  this  century  contained 
only  5,000,000  inhabitants,  has  to-day  more  than  40,000,000. 

The  United  States,  which  exhibit  to  the  world  the  example  of 
a  development  unparalelled  in  the  history  of  society,  occupied  the 


502 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


greater  portion  of  the  space  in  the 

area  covered 

by  their   ex- 

hibitsof  every 

kind     was 

more    than 

that  occupied 

by   all    the 

other    C  o  m- 

missioners. 

The  people 

of  the  United 

States    are 


International  Exhibition.  The 
essentially 
practical; 
theyare  never 
satisfied  with 
words  or  use- 
less demon- 
strations; 
small  gratifi- 
cations of 
selflovecount 
little  with 
them ;  show 


'The  Great  Exhibition.  t87(>"}       GARDEN-TABLE  AND  TOP. 

By  Mott  Iron  Co. 


{Horticultural  f/a!.' 


does  not  affect  them.     A  thing  is  of  importance  to  them  only  when  it 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS.    503 

will  be  likely  to  be  of  immediate  or  early  use  to  them,  and  to  bring 
in  some  return.  Hence,  their  Exhibition  contrasted  singularly  with 
those  of  many  other  countries,  which  incumbered  their  galleries 
with  collections  of  curious  objects  in  nature  and  art,  with  relics  or 
treasures  more  or  less  rare  or  valuable, — objects  which  simply  excite 
the  admiration  of  visitors. 

All  that  was  to  be  seen  in  the  Exhibition  had,  on  the  contrary, 
a  clearly-defined  object;  nothing  was  found  there  which  did  not 
yield  a  return.  There  were  exhibited  machines  and  raw  materials 
which  are  extensively  used  in  trade,  or  which  are  susceptible  of 
becoming  important  for  exportation.  There  might  be  found  all 
that  could  strike  the  imagination  of  visitors  favorably,  and  by 
creating  the  desire  to  settle  in  the  midst  of  a  region  which  pro- 
duces them  in  such  marvelous  abundance,  maintain  or  increase  that 
formidable  current  of  emigrants  which  carries  away  regularly  each 
year,  from  old  Europe,  a  portion  of  its  youth  and  of  its  living  forces.* 

Such  being  the  case,  these  magnificent  bales  of  cotton  piled 
like  a'  trophy  at  the  end  of  the  Gallery;  this  splendid  shrub- 
bery covered  with  silken  capsules,  as  if  snow-flakes  were  con- 
densed there;  this  rich  collection  of  tobacco  from  Kentucky; 
the  exhibition  of  agricultural  products,  fruits  and  vegetables,  made 
by  the  Western  States,  which  has  so  much  land  to  sell  and  to 
colonize;  the  exhibitions  by  the  governments  of  the  States,  the 
towns,  and  the  rural  villages,  which  by  showing  the  immense 
resources  consecrated  by  the  country  to  the  education  of  children 
and  adults— all  these  offer  new  inducements  and  encouragements 
to  emigration. 

Samples  of  salts,  of  ores,  of  marble,  of  coal,  of  schist,  of  petroleum, 
photographs  showing  the  richness  of  the  country  in  mines,  and 


*From  1820  to  1870  the  total  number  of  emigrants  who  came  to  the  United  States  was  7,500,000,  repre- 
senting a  value  of  $8,400,000,000  of  that  capital  most  precious  to  a  state,  that  is  human  capital.  The 
number  of  emigrants  from  France  was  255,000,  from  the  British  Isles  3,857,000,  and  from  Germany  2,367,000. 
At  every  revolution,  or  great  unexpected  crisis  in  Europe,  there  is  a  corresponding  increase  in  emigration  to 
the  United  States.  Thus  the  events  of  1870  were  favorable  to  the  United  States.  The  European  emigration 
was  in  1871, 1,000  persons  per  day.  In  1872  this  number  had  increased  to  449,030  individuals,  but  since  1873 
the  tide  of  emigration  has  fallen  off  to  a  wonderful  extent. 


5°4 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL   HALLS.    505 


51 
3* 


506  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

even  the  picturesqueness  and  splendor  of  nature  in  the  mountains 
— nothing  is  wantjng  to  allure  visitors  and  entice  them  toward 
these  countries  as  toward  an  unexampled  Eldorado;  so  much  for 
colonization. 

In  the  hall  which  protects  the  products  we  found  a  large 
collection  of  reapers  and  mowers;  that  is  the  instruments  that  the 
Americans  manufacture  on  a  vast  scale,  and  which  are  the  object 
of  a  large  commerce  to  them.  Of  drills,  plows  and  hoes  we 
saw  equally  large  numbers  there;  the  manufacturers  knowing  well 
that  they  are  now  in  a  condition  to  compete  for  these  articles  with 
the  European  manufacturers. 

They  exhibited  also  quantities  of  machines  for  cutting  grass,  and 
beautiful  collections  of  steel  tools,  such  as  shovels,  forks,  scythes, 
and  rakes  of  remarkable  lightness  and  durability;  these  are  always 
articles  of  exportation. 

The  principal  products  exhibited  by  the  United  States  were 
cereals  from  one  part  and  from  the  other  cotton,  tobacco,  hemp 
and  a  certain  quantity  of  products  of  animal  origin.  Among  the 
cereals  exhibited  we  ought  to  mention  particularly  the  beautiful 
specimens  sent  from  California.  The  grains  almost  all  belonged 
to  the  varieties  of  tender  wheat  and  of  light  color ;  the  red  grains 
were  in  the  minority.  A  white  variety  of  winter-wheat  was  espe- 
cially remarkable.  They  took  care  to  put  with  them  beautiful 
sheaves  showing  the  quality  and  great  size  of  the  straw  of 
each  variety.  We  saw  here  sheaves  of  wheat  of  the  height 
of  seven  feet,  sheaves  of  white  oats  from  seven  to  eight  feet, 
bundles  of  clover  and  timothy  fifty  inches  in  height.  The  barleys 
exposed  were  also  very  beautiful  and  belonged  to  the  chevalier 
variety. 

A  magnificent  collection  of  maize  in  the  ear  and  in  the  grain; 
specimens  of  broom  as  beautiful  as  those  which  are  cultivated  in 
Algeria  and  in  Spain;  specimens  of  fruits  and  vegetables  of  all 
sorts  completed  this  interesting  collection. 

Oregon  also  exhibited  beautiful  cereals,  among  which  should  be 
mentioned  the  winter-wheat  called  mammoth  white  wheat,  which 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS.    507 


'  The  Great  Exhibition,  1876." 


{Horticultural  Halt. 


508  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  2876. 

is  very  delicate  and  tender  and  furnishes  a  choice  flour,  the  mam- 
moth spring-wheat,  with  grain  larger  and  smalles,  the  golden  amber, 
winter  variety,  grain  larger  on  the  average,  of  a  pale  color,  white 
and  translucent ;  the  winter-wheat,  yellow  and  large  grained. 

We  should  describe  also  among  other  cereals  exhibited  by  the 
United  States,  a  variety  of  white  spring-wheat,  small  ovid  grains 
pointed  at  their  two  extremities,  hard  to  the  teeth  and  known  by 
the  name  of  white  club  wheat.  This  wheat  comes  from  the  country 
of  the  Mormons,  which  has  been  cultivated  for  ten  years ;  it  is  at 
a  little  distance  from  Salt  Lake,  Utah ;  it  exhibits  qualities  which 
make  it  preferable  in  those  remote  regions  to  all  other  varieties. 
It  has  the  quality,  they  assure  us,  of  resisting  the  greatest  drought.  It 
grows  well  even  in  those  regions  where  it  hardly  ever  rains.  Though 
some  exaggeration  cannot  be  avoided  in  these  statements,  this  wheat 
does  not  the  less  merit  our  attention.  It  seems  desirable  that  the 
experiment  should  be  made  in  those  parts  of  the  country  most  subject 
to  great  drought,  and  on  the  plains  especially.  Should  this  variety 
realize  but  the  half  of  the  advantages  attributed  to  it,  its  propa- 
gation would  still  be  important  in  the  West 

The  Rocky  Mountain  spring-wheat  has  similar  qualities  and 
characteristics.  It  is  recommended  for  stony  soils.  It  is  also  a 
small-grained  wheat,  very  hard  and  very  heavy.  The  exhibition 
of  corn,  as  in  the  exhibition  at  Vienna,  presented  a  great  many 
different  varieties.  It  is  the  plant  par  excellence  for  American 
culture.  This  is  also  the  grain  of  all  others  which  gives  the  largest 
return  to  the  United  States  in  the  actual  conditions  of  culture. 
The  varieties  of  corn  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are  also 
increasing  very  rapidly.  There  could  be  seen  on  the  shelves  of  the 
American  exhibitors  ears  of  all  sizes  and  of  all  colors,  having 
grains  of  all  shapes  and  all  sizes,  from  the  pearled  maize  to  the 
great  maize  of  Illinois  and  Nicaragua. 

The  numerous  specimens  of  tobacco  exhibited  show  the 
importance  which  we  attach  to  this  culture.  It  is  said  that  this 
plant,  by  furnishing  capital  to  the  first  colonies  established  on  the 
Alleghany  slopes,  was  to  the  United  States  the  first,  and  one  of 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS.    509 


'The  Great  Exhibition,  1876."}        GARDEN  FLOWER-STAND. 

By  Mott  Iron  Co. 


(Horticulturaf  Hall. 


5io  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

the  most  powerful  means  of  development.  Virginia,  Ohio,  Louisiana, 
Missouri  and  Kentucky  exhibited  some  very  beautiful  leaves  from 
the  harvest  of  1874  and  1875.  When  one  thinks  of  the  immense 
resources  which  the  United  States  received  in  the  beginning  in  the 
profits  of  this  culture  we  see  that  the  example  should  neither  be 
forgotten  nor  lost;  the  result  is  worth  some  consideration,  some 
sacrifices,  especially  in  the  beginning.  We  should  never  forget 
that  money  gained  by  agricultural  labor  is  worth  more  than  money 
given  or  expended  in  premiums  or  in  building  houses.  It  is  worth 
more  than  gold  found  in  the  ground,  as  the  history  of  Spanish 
America  proves. 

We  disregard  what  we  owe  to  the  culture  of  tobacco ;  but  it  is  to 
cotton — to  king  cotton — that  we  render  honor ;  so  its  place  was  a 
marked  one  in  the  Exhibition.  At  the  head  of  the  galleries  occu- 
pied by  American  products  might  be  seen  a  cotton-plant  covered 
with  hundreds  of  full-blown  seed-pods.  It  was  there  the  emblem 
of  the  wealth  and  power  which  it  gives  to  the  country;  behind^ 
they  set  up  like  a  trophy  a  pile  of  cotton-bales  from  Louisiana 
and  Georgia.  The  long-staple  cotton  of  this  latter  country  at  once 
attracts  attention  by  its  fineness,  its  elasticity,  and  the  silky  look 
of  its  fibers.  Of  all  the  states,  Louisiana  made  the  most  beautiful 
exhibition  of  this  product.  An  exhibitor  from  New  Orleans  pre- 
sented an  interesting  collection  of  cotton-plants  grown  in  different 
soils,  and  from  different  seed,  with  capsules  closed  and  open,  showing 
the  condition  of  the  textile  material  in  all  stages  of  its  growth. 
Missouri  and  Texas  also  exhibited  some  beautiful  specimens.  The 
cotton-cultivation  is  always  cantonned  on  both  sides  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  Mississippi  and  on  the  eastern  part  of  the  portion 
south  of  the  Alleghany  chain,  in  Alabama,  Georgia  and  the  Caro- 
linas.  It  does  not  extend  beyond  this.  Besides  these  productions, 
there  were  specimens  of  hemp,  flax,  vegetable  hair  (moss)  picked 
from  the  branches  of  a  tree  in  Louisiana,  with  sugar-canes, 
specimens  of  guano  and  of  powdered  bone,  which  present  no 
peculiarities  worthy  of  special  notice.  Some  bottles  of  wine, 
adorned  with  labels  more  or  less  imposing,  attracted  attention. 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Imitations  of  champagne  wine  were  especially  abundant,  under  the 
names  of  "Sparkling  Catawba"  wines,  "Sparkling  Imperial," 
"Sparkling  Golden  Seal,"  "Pearl  of  California,"  and  even  "Match- 
less Sparkling."  These  products  mostly  from  Ohio,  California  and 
Missouri,  do  not  nearly  equal  foreign  wines,  but  one  can  see  in  them 
what  American  perseverance  will  finally  make  a  success.  The 
United  States  produce  to-day  1,500,000  gallons  of  wine.  This  is 
certainly  very  little  in  comparison  with  the  amount  consumed ; 
and  though  progress  is  rapid,  it  is  probable  that  North  America 


AGRICULTURAL  HALL,  THE  MILL. 

will  long  go  to  Europe  for  fine  wines.     Our  importations,  in  spite 
of  excessive  duties,  amount  to  upward  of  $8,000,000  per  annum. 

The  exhibition  of  California  deserves  special  mention,  for  besides 
magnificent  cereals,  numerous  specimens  of  wine,  fruits  and  minerals, 
it  included  also  beautiful  specimens  of  cotton  and  silk.  This 
country,  by  its  character,  its  climate  and  all  its  natural  resources, 
seems  to  be,  of  all  the  States  of  the  Union,  the  most  likely  to 
imitate  the  agriculture  and  raise  productions  similar  to  Southern 
Europe. 


HOR  TICUL  TURAL  AND  A  GRICUL  TURAL  HALLS.    5 1 3 

The  American  implements  were  remarkable  for  beauty  and  finish. 
All  were  fashioned,  put  together,  and  polished  like  clock-work. 
The  steel  hand-implements,  such  as  forks,  scythes,  shovels  and 
spades,  are  well  known.  It  has  been  seen  in  former  exhibitions 
that  they  are  at  once  light,  flexible  and  durable.  We  cannot  fail 
to  mention  the  exhibition  of  Remington  &  Co.  whose  works  use 
steam  to  the  amount  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  horse-power,  and 
manufacture  a  great  quantity  of  them.  The  jury  of  this  group, 


AGRICULTURAL,  HALL,  INTERIOR. 

Brazilian  Department. 

recognized  the  value  of  the  productions  of  this  house  by  according 
to  it  honorable  mention. 

The  house  of  Furst  &  Bradley,  of  Chicago,  is  considered  supe- 
rior in  this  munufacture,  in  the  quality  of  the  work,  and  in  the 
durability  of  the  plows ;  some  are  all  of  iron,  with  the  beam  bent 
round  like  the  neck  of  a  swan ;  others  having  the  beam  and  handles 
of  wood  with  the  mold-board  of  cast-iron  or  steel.  This  house 
sells  mostly  the  so-called  American  plow,  in  which  the  coulter  is 
replaced  by  a  cutting-edge. 


514  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

Among  other  exhibitors  of  plows  we  should  mention  the  house 
of  Deere  &  Co.,  whose  great  establishment  is  situated  at  Moline, 
Illinois.  Messrs.  Collins  &  Co.,  of  Hartford,  whose  plows  of 
steelified  iron  have  already  been  given  an  award  at  the  Universal 
Exposition  at  Paris,  in  1867.  Their  double-share  plow,  all  of  iron, 
made  with  extreme  care,  is  a  model  of  good  workmanship  and 
fine  finish. 

The  farmers  of  the  United  States  are  accustomed  to  sow  seed 
in  drills.  Experience  has  proved,  in  fact,  that  in  the  great  plains 
of  the  Middle  and  of  the  Western  States,  where  cereals  are  grown 
on  so  vast  a  scale,  sowing  in  rows  insures  better  gathering;  the 
plants  sown  in  drills  root  more  firmly,  and  better  resist  cold, 
tempests  and  particularly  those  violent  winds  which  injure  the 
harvest  by  drying  up  the  soil.  Besides  economy  in  sowing,  this 
distribution  always  insures  a  large  production  of  grain ;  the  wheat 
is  better  nourished  and  is  of  better  quality.  These  results  are  easily 
understood;  the  grains  being  deposited  uniformly,  at  just  the  proper 
depth,  the  germination  is  regular;  the  roots  develop  uniformly  and 
penetrate  further  into  the  soil.  Consequently  they  are  more  shel- 
tered from  the  cold,  and  from  the  scorching  summer  winds;  the 
plants  shoot  forth  more  vigorously  and  steadily.  These  advantages, 
are  well  known  to  American  planters.  Thus,  during  these  latter 
years,  the  manufacture  of  seeding-machines  has  attained  considerable 
importance  in  this  country. 

We  must  now  leave  the  subjects  which  are  of  the  greatest 
interest  and  importance  to  the  United  States,  but  unless  illustrated 
in  the  highest  manner — and  consequently  most  expensive — in  colors, 
it  is  difficult  to  make  the  subjects  pleasing  to  the  eye,  whilst  these 
pages  are  not  the  place  for  a  technical  discourse.  A  more  pleasing 
and  more  instructive  chapter  waits  our  readers  in  the  next  division 
of  this  work. 


PART  V. 


INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS 


CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION. 


E  INTERNATIONAL  EXfflBITIO 


INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS. 


in    1797    as 


HE  FIRST  EXHIBITION  of  which  we  have  any 
record  was  that  of  1798,  born  of  the  Revolution, 
a  reaction  as  it  were  from  the  turbulent  spirit  of 
the  times,  back  to  the  pursuits  of  peace  and  industry. 
The  Marquis  d'Aveze,  shortly  after  his  appointment 

Commissioner    of   the    Royal    Manufactories   of   the 


Gobelins,  of  Sevres   and   of  the    Savonnerie,    found   the   workmen 


EXHIBITION  BUILDING,  PARIS,  1844. 


reduced  nearly  to  starvation  by  the  neglect  of  the  previous  two 
years,  while  the  storehouses,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  filled 
with  their  choicest  productions.  The  original  idea  occurred  to 
him  to  have  a  display  and  sale  of  this  large  stock  of  tapestries, 


5i8  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

china  and  carpets,  and  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  government, 
he  made  arrangements  for  an  exhibition  at  the  then  uninhabited 
Chateau  of  St.  Cloud.  On  the  day,  however,  appointed  for  the 
opening,  he  was  compelled  by  a  decree  of  the  Directory,  banishing 
the  nobility,,  to  quit  France,  and  the  project  was  a  failure.  The 
following  year,  however,  returning  to  France,  he  organized  another 
exhibition  on  a  larger  scale,  collecting  a  great  variety  of  beautiful 
objects  of  art  and  arranging  them  in  the  house  and  gardens  of 
the  Maison  d'Orsay  for  exhibition  and  sale.  The  success  was  so 
great  that  the  government  adopted  the  idea,  and  the  first  official 
Exposition  was  established  and  held  on  the  Champ  de  Mars,  a 
Temple  of  Industry  being  erected,  surrounded  by  sixty  porticoes, 
and  filled  with  the  most  magnificent  collection  of  objects  that  France 
could  produce.  Here  was  first  inaugurated  the  system  of  awards 


EXHIBITION  BUILDING,  PARIS, 1849. 

by  juries,  composed  of  gentlemen  distinguished  for  their  taste  in 
the  various  departments  of  art,  and  prizes  were  awarded  for  excel- 
lence in  design  and  workmanship. 

The  government  was  So  satisfied  with  the  good  effects  resulting 
from  this  exhibition,  that  it  resolved  to  hold  them  annually;  but 
notwithstanding  the  circular  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  to  this 
effect,  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country  prevented  a  repetition 
until  1 80 1.  The  third  exhibition  was  in  1802,  where  there  were 
six  hundred  prize  competitors.  These  expositions  became  so 
popular  as  to  result  in  the  formation  of  a  Societe  d*  Encouragement, 
thus  creating  a  powerful  aid  to  the  industrial  efforts  of  the  French 
manufacturers.  At  the  fourth  exhibition,  in  1806,  the  printed 
cottons  of  Mulhausen  and  Logelbach,  and  silk-thread  and  cotton- 
lace  were  first  displayed  and  prizes  were  adjudged  for  the  manu- 


HIS  TOR  Y  OF  IN  TERN  A  TIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.       5 1 9 
facture  of  iron  by  means  of  coke,  and  of  steel  by  a  new  process. 


Foreign  wars  prevented  further  exhibitions  until   1819,  after  which 


520  THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


time  they  became  more  frequent,  being  held  in  1823,  1827,  etc.;  the 
tenth  being  in  1844,  the  last  under  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe, 
when  three  thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty  manufacturers  exhi- 
bited their  productions.  In  1849,  notwithstanding  the  political 
revolution  through  which  France  had  just  passed,  she  organized 
another  exhibition  on  a  still  grander  scale  than  any  previous  one, 
covering  an  area  of  200,000  square  feet,  exclusive  of  an  agricultural 
annex,  and  costing  about  the  same  price  per  square  foot  as  the 
building  of  1844.  At  this  time  the  number  of  exhibitors  had 
increased  from  one  thousand  four  hundred,  in  1806,  to  nearly  five 
thousand,  there  being  no  less  than  three  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  thirty-eight  prizes  awarded,  and  the  building  remained  open 
for  sixty  days. 

Each  of  these   previous   exhibitions    had  been   strictly  national, 


DUBLIN  EXHIBITION  BUILDING,  1853. 

confined  to  the  products  of  the  special  country  by  which  it  was 
held.  The  idea  seems  to  have  been  suggested,  however,  in  France, 
in  1849,  of  giving  an  international  feature  to  that  exhibition;  M. 
Buffet,  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  having  addressed 
a  circular  letter  on  the  subject  to  various  manufacturers,  with  a 
view  of  ascertaining  their  opinions;  but  the  resulting  replies  were 
so  unfavorable  that  the  project  was  abandoned,  and  France  lost  the 
opportunity,  which  was  reserved  to  England,  of  the  credit  of  the 
first  really  International  Industrial  Exhibition,  in  that  of  London, 
1851. 

After  various  preliminary  proceedings,  the  Royal  Commission 
was  issued,  and  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Commissioners,  on 
January  nth,  1850,  it  was  decided  to  rely  entirely  upon  voluntary 
contributions  for  means  to  carry  out  the  plans  proposed.  The 
appeal  made  to  this  effect  was  answered  in  a  most  encouraging 


HISTOR  Y  OF  IN  TERN  A  TIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.       5  2 1 

manner;  a  guarantee  fund  of  $1,150,000  was  subscribed,  one 
gentleman  opening  the  list  with  $250,000,  and  contributions  began 
to  come  in  from  all  directions. 

Upon  the  security  thus  provided  the  Bank  of  England  under- 
took to  furnish  the  necessary  advances.  The  contract  was  not 
finally  consummated  until  the  end  of  October;  but  with  courage 
and  enterprise  the  work  was  pushed  forward  in  order  to  insure  the 
completion  of  the  building  at  the  time  fixed  for  the  opening, — the 
first  of  May,  1851.  It  was  opened  at  the  time  appointed,  by  th£ 
Queen  in  person,  with  great  ceremony,  although  considerable  work 
still  remained  to  be  done.  The  inauguration  was  one  of  the  most 
imposing  sights  that  had  ever  been  witnessed  in  Great  Britain. 
Our  engraving  gives  a  view  of  the  building  on  the  south  side, 


CRYSTAL  PALACE,  NEW  YORK,  1853. 

extending  east  and  west,  and  showing  the  main  entrance  at  the 
great  transept. 

The  exhibition  of  1851  was  in  every  way  a  great  success. 
Upwards  $200,000 'had  been  received  from  the  sale  of  season  tickets 
alone  before  the  opening.  During  the  six  months  that  it  remained 
open,  from  May  to  October  inclusive,  the  average  daily  number 
of  visitors  was  43,536;  the  total  number  for  the  whole  time  was 
6,170,000,  and  the  amount  of  receipts,  $2,625,535;  there  being  a 
balance  of  $750,000  in  the  hands  of  the  Commissioners  after  all 
expenses  were  paid.  The  exhibitors,  coming  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  amounted  to  more  than  17,000. 

The  success  attending  this  exhibition  stimulated  other  countries 
in  efforts  to  have  something  of  the  same  kind.  Exhibitions,  more 


52*  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 

or  less  local  in  character,  were  projected  and  held  in  the  large 
manufacturing  towns  throughout  the  British  Empire, — at  Cork, 
Dublin,  Manchester,  etc. 

That  at  Dublin,  in  1853,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  which  had  previously  had  triennial  exhibitions,  was  the 
result  of  a  proposition  made  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  William  Dargan, 
a  well-known  contractor,  providing  a  certain  fund  for  the  exhibition 
under  certain  conditions;  and,  although  international  in  its  features, 
was  not  practically  as  entirely  so  as  the  exhibition  of  1851.  We 


STATUE  OF  GENERAL  WASHINGTON. 

By  Baron  Marochetti. 

give   an   elevation  of  this   building,  which    shows   very  clearly  its 
general  design. 

This  same  year  an  International  Exhibition  was  also  held  in 
the  City  of  New  York  under  the  organization  of  a  few  influential 
citizens,  as  a  joint  stock  company,  clothed  with  sufficient  powers  by 
legislation  to  carry  out  the  objects  proposed.  This  exhibition  had 
in  view  the  comparison  of  the  productions  of  America  with  those 
of  other  countries,  with  the  object  of  the  promotion  of  her  advance- 
ment, it  being  acknowledged  that  she  had  more  to  gain  by  such 
comparison  than  any  other  of  the  great  nations  of  the  world.  It 
was  liberally  assisted  by  contributions  of  exhibits  from  European 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.      523 

manufacturers  and  artists,  but  misfortune  seems  to  have  attended 
it  from  the  beginning. 

The  opening,  although  advertised  to  be  early  in  June,  did  not 
take  place  until  the  middle  of  July,  in  the  midst  of  our  hot 
season;  President  Pierce  formally  taking  part  in  the  exercises,  in 
the  presence  of  six  commissioners  of  Great  Britain,  those  of  many 
other  foreign  governments,  and  all  the  heads  of  the  various  State 
departments. 

The  area  covered  by  the  first  floor  was  157,195  square  feet,  and 
by  the  galleries,  92,496  square  feet,  making  a  total  floor  space  of 
249,692  square  feet,  or  about  5^  acres,  and  the  quantities  of 
material  used  in  the  structure  amounted  to  300  tons  of  wrought 


EXHIBITION,  MANCHESTER,  1857. 

iron,  1500  tons  of  cast,  55,000  square  feet  of  glass,  and  750,000 
feet,  board-measure,  of  timber. 

We  give  an  exterior  view  of  the  building,  which  has  now 
passed  away  from  sight  forever,  haying  been  entirely  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1858. 

We  also  present  an  engraving  of  the  Equestrian  Statue  of 
Washington  by  Baron  Marochetti,  the  largest  work  shown  at  this 
exhibition,  and  located  in  a  prominent  position  immediately  under 
the  dome.  The  artist  was  an  Italian  sculptor  of  note,  born  in 
Turin,  in  1805,  long  resident  in  France,  and  who  died  in  1867,  in 
London,  where  he  had  removed  on  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution,  in  1848. 

France,  encouraged  by  the  great  success  of  the  London  exhi- 
bition of  1851, — regretting,  perhaps,  the  opportunity  which  she  lost 


524 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


in  1849,  of  setting  the  example  of  the  international  feature  in 
exhibitions,  and  conscious  that  the  exclusive  or  merely  national 
system  which  she  had  previously  adopted,  would  if  continued,  be 
detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  herself,  and  contrary  to  the 
national  pride  of  her  people, — determined  to  hold  an  International 
Exhibition  in  1855,  which  she  did  with  marked  success. 

In  the  year  1857,  Manchester,  England,  held  an  exhibition  of 
Fine  Art  and  Fine  Art  Manufacture,  more  particularly  confined  to 
the  Art  Treasures  of  the  United  Kingdom, — plans  being  advertised 
for  in  May,  1856,  with  the  conditions  that  the  building  must  be 
fire-proof, must  cover  about  135,000  square  feet,  or  a  little  over  three 
acres,  at  a  total  cost  of  not  more  than  $125,000,  and  must  be 
capable  of  erection  within  six  months. 


EXHIBITION,  FLORENCE,  1861. 

The  Art  Treasures  included  the  works  of  the  old  masters- 
commencing  with  the  oldest  specimens  that  could  be  obtained — and 
were  intended  to  show  the  .gradual  progress  in  Art  from  the 
earliest  epoch,  on  through  the  periods  of  Titian,  Correggio,  and 
Rubens,  up  to  the  modern  Schools  of  Art,  especially  those  of 
England. 

Italy — with  its  principalities  freed  from  the  trammels  and  tyranny 
of  a  foreign  yoke,  and  united  into  one  grand  nation — resolved 
upon  holding  an  exhibition  at  Florence  in  1861,  for  the  purpose, 
perhaps,  of  inaugurating  its  new  birth,  and  taking  its  place  among 
the  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Previous  exhibitions  had  been  held  in 
various  parts  of  Italy — some  at  a  remote  period — but  they  partook 
more  of  the  nature  of  agricultural  exhibitions.  There  had  also 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.      525 


been  one  at  Naples 
some  years  before, 
but  this  exhibition, 
now  held,  was  far 
superior  to  any 
that  precede  d  i  t, 
and  forming,  as  it 
did,  an  exceedingly 
attractive  display  of 
Italian  industrial, 
fine  art,  and  agri- 
cultural products, 
it  seems  singular 
that  it  did  not  at- 
tract the  attention 
from  abroad  that 
its  importance 
deserved. 

We  present  an 
exterior  of  the  per- 
manent portion  of 
the  main  building. 
The  display  of  the 
peculiar  agricultu- 
ral prod  u  c  t  s  of 
northern  and  cen- 
tral Italy  was  par- 
ticularly rich,  and 
the  fine  art  collec- 
tion could  not  have 
been  otherwise  than 
excellent. 

On  the  1 4th  of 
March,  1860,  a 
Charter  of  Incorpo- 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  2876. 


HIS  TOR  Y  OF  INTERNA  TIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.       5  2  7 


ration  was  issued  by  the  Queen  to  Royal  Commissioners  for  this 
exhibition,  defining  their  duties  and  investing  them  with  full 
powers, — the  Prince  Consort  being  made  President  of  this  Com- 


mission. It 
was  decided,  in 
anticipation,  to 
test  the  popu- 
larity of  the 
undertaking 
by  public  sub- 
scriptions, and 
a  Guarantee 
Fund  of  $1, 
250,000  was 
formed  with 
a  rapidity  Be- 
yond all  ex- 
pectation, al- 
lowing of  the 
formal  execu- 
tion of  the 
Guarantee 
Deed  to  the 
full  amount  by 
the  1 5th  of 
March, the  day 
after  the  incor- 
poration of  the 
Commission. 
This  Guaran- 
tee Fund  was 

The  design  was  severely  criticised  at  the  time ;  the  frontage  showing  to 
the  right  on  the  picture,  especially  being  condemned  as  featureless  and 
ugly;  and  the  Art  Journal  characterized  the  building  as  "the  wretched 
shed  that  was  the  Fowke  version  of  the  Paxton  Crystal  Palace." 


PORCELAIN  VASE. 

Exhibited  at  Paris,  1867. 


afterwards 
signed  by  1157 
persons,  in  all, 
to  the  amount 
of  $2,255,000, 
and  upon  this 
security,  the 
Bank  of  Eng- 
land advanced 
$1,250,000  for 
the  expenses 
of  erecting  the 
buildings  and 
making  the 
requisite  pre- 
parations for 
the  Exhibi- 
tion. 

We  present 
an  exterior 
view  of  the 
building  from 
Cromwell 
Road,  which 
will  give  the 
reader  a  very 
fair  idea  of  its 
appearance. 


528 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  total  area  roofed  in  was  988,000  square  feet — larger  than 
that  of  any  previous  exhibition ;  but  the  total  area  of  space  covered 
and  uncovered,  and  available  for  exhibition  purposes,  was  not  as 
great  as  that  of  Paris,  1855;  the  proportions  standing  1,023,000  in 
the  present  case,  to  1,500,000  in  the  other.  The  total  cost  was 
not  less  than  $2,150,000,  equal  to  about  $2.18  per  square  foot. 
Including  the  expenses  of  the  exhibition,  during  the  time  it  was 


MORNING. 


open,  the  total  amounting  to  $2,298,155,  and  the  entire  amount 
received  by  the  Royal  Commissioners  amounted  to  precisely  the 
same  sum,  making  no  loss  or  no  gain, — the  exhibition  just  self- 
sustaining  and  no  more. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III,  all  will 
admit  that  he  systematically  labored  to  advance  the  interests  and 
promote  the  happiness  of  the  people  under  him,  continually  engaging 
in  projects  for  the  development  of  the  great  natural  resources 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.      529 

of  his  empire;  originating  and  giving  an  impulse  to  national 
industries,  before  unknown,  and  taking  every  opportunity  of 
pleasing  the  inherent  tastes  of  his  people,  and  gratifying  their  pride 
by  improving  and  adorning  Paris,  until  it  grew  to  be  called  the 
most  beautiful  city  of  the  modern  world — the  very  Heaven  of  the 
pleasure-seeker.  In  strict  accordance  with  his  expressed  views, 
and  with  the  characteristic  features  of  his  reign,  he  decided  upon 
holding  a  great  International  Exhibition  in  Paris,  in  1867,  and  on 
the  22d  of  June,  1863,  an  imperial  decree  was  issued  to  this  effect; 
the  "Universal  Exposition,"  as  it  was  called,  being  intended  to 
comprise  typical  examples  of  works  of  art,  and  of  the  industrial 


MEDALS  OF  THE  PARIS  EXPOSITION,  1867. 

products  of  all  countries,  and  to  include  every  branch  of  human 
labor  or  skill.  The  invitation  was  extended  to  artists,  manufac- 
turers and  workers  of  all  nations,  to 'take  part  in  the  Exposition, 
and  it  was  expressly  stated  that  the  decree  had  been  issued  so 
early  in  order  to  afford  all  desiring  to  enter  the  Exposition  ample 
time  for  mature  consideration  and  reflection,  and  for  arranging  and 
carrying  out  the  necessary  preparations.  This  was  followed  by  a 
second  decree  in  February,  1865,  confirming  the  previous  one, 
explaining  in  full  such  details  as  had  become  at  that  time  neces- 
sary, and  defining  the  leading  features  of  the  proposed  exhibition. 
The  site  selected  for  the  exhibition  was  the  "  Champs  de 
Mars" — the  same  spot  upon  which  was  located  the  first  French 


530 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Exposition  of  1798— a  rectangle  of  1 19  acres,  to  which  was  attached, 
also,  the  Island  of  Billancourt,  affording  an  additional  area  of  52 
acres,  or  171  in  all.  The  main  building  was  located  upon  the 
former,  and  the  latter  was  used  for  the  Agricultural  Department. 
An  elliptical  form  of  building  was  adopted,  or,  in  reality,  a  rectangle 
with  rounded  ends ;  the  length  of  the  straight  portion  between  the 
curved  ends  being  360  feet,  the  total  length  1,608  feet,  and  the 
width,  1,247  feet-  The  total  area  within  the  outer  limits  of  the 


CARVED  FRAME. 

Exhibited  at  Vienna,  2873. 


building  was  37^  acres,  and  an  open  garden  of  ij£  acres  occu- 
pied the  centre,  reducing  the  amount  under  roof  to  36^  acres. 

Among  the  Photographic  exhibits  was  a  fine  series  of  views 
of  the  Yosemite  Valley,  by  E.  Watkins,  of  San  Francisco;  also, 
Rutherford's  photographs  of  the  moon  and  the  solar  spectrum, 
attracting  great  interest  from  the  savans,  and  receiving  a  silver 
medal. 

Among  the  musical  instruments,  Steinway  &  Sons,  of  New,  York, 
and  Chickering  &  Sons,  of  Boston,  were  considered  as  having  the 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.       531 

best  pianos  in  the  Exposition,  and  although  the  Jury  of  Awards  had 
only  four  gold  medals  to  award  to  this  class,  they  each  received 
a  gold  medal,  and  the  fact  of  two  going  to  America,  under  the 
circumstances,  was  a  great  honor.  Mason  &  Hamlin's  Cabinet 
Organs  were  objects  of  great  interest  on  account  of  their  superior 
workmanship  and  singularly  pure  tone,  and  received  a  silver 
medal. 

Pottery  stands  among  the  earliest  of  art  manufactures,  and  in 
none  has  there  been  less  change ;  the  finest  designs  of  the  present 
day  being  of  the  same  forms  as  in  use  two  thousand  years  ago. 


JEWELRY. 

Exhibited  at  Vienna,  1873. 

Taking  a  material  possessing  primarily  less  value  than  almost  any 
other  used  in  the  arts,  the  manufacturer,  by  the  exercise  of  labor, 
skill  and  taste,  produces  forms  ministering  greatly  to  the  neces- 
sities of  man,  and  often  of  untold  value,  ranging  from  objects  of 
every-day  use  to  the  porcelain  of  Sevres.  We  engrave  on  page  527 
a  vase  produced  from  the  Imperial  Manufactory  of  Sevres,  a  beau- 
tiful work  of  art  and  an  excellent  specimen  of  the  gems  which  are 
created  in  that  school  of  pottery,  so  creditable  to  the  government 
which  has  established  it. 

Mr.  Harry  Emanuel,  of    London,  exhibited   in   repousse   silver, 


532 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


Norway  and  Denmark. 


Tazze  of  Night  and  Morn- 
ing, designed  by  the  emi- 
nent artist  Pairpoint,  of 
which  an  engraving  of  the 
latter,  given  on  page  528, 
conveys  an  excellent  idea. 
There  were  at  this  ex- 
hibition over  12,000,000 
of  entrance  tickets  record- 
ed, representing  at  least 
4,000,000,  of  different  visi- 
tors. The  total  cost  of  the 
main  exhibition  building 
was  $2,356,605.  The  total 
expenses  were  $4,688,705, 
and  the  total  receipts 
were  $5,251,361,  leaving  a 
net  profit  of  $562,654,  of 
which  dividends  were  de- 
clared of  $553,200,  and 
the  balance  of  $9,456  was 
held  for  unforseen  events 
and  finally  used  for  the 
public  good. 

Exhibitions  were  held 
at  Copenhagen  and  Mos- 
cow, in  1872,  and  one  of 
Domestic  Economy,  in 
Paris,  the  same  year. 
These  exhibitions  were 
all  more  or  less  of  a  local 
character,  that  at  Copen- 
hagen being  confined  to 
the  products  of  Sweden, 
The  Moscow  Exhibition,  which  was  on  a 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.       533 


considerable  scale, 
was  held  under 
the  auspices  of 
the  Moscow  Poly- 
technic Society, 
with  the  favor  and 
protection  of  the 
government. 

Act  i  v  e  m  e  a- 
sures  for  an  inter- 
national exhibi- 
tion to  be  held  in 
Vienna  in  1873, 
were  first  taken 
by  the  Trades' 
Union  of  the  city. 
According  to  the 
original  arrange- 
ments, a  guarantee 
fund  was  formed 
of  $1,500,000,  and 
subscriptions  to 
this  amount  were 
obtained  —  chiefly 
among  members 
of  the  Society — 
it  being  supposed 
that  the  receipts 
from  the  exhibi- 
tion would  nearly, 
if  not  quite,  meet 
the  expenditures, 
and  that  this  fund 
would  cover  all 
number,  at  intervals  throughtout  the  whole 


IRON  STOVE  FROM  SILESIA. 

Exhibited  at  Vienna,  1873. 


possible  deficien- 
cies. The  total  area 
of  ground  for  ex- 
hibition purposes 
comprised  within 
the  surrounding 
fence  was  about 
280  acres. 

The  principal 
buildings  for  the 
exhibition  were 
the  Palace  of  In- 
dustry, or  main 
exhibition  build- 
ing, for  miscella- 
neous manufac- 
tures, the  Gallery 
of  Fine  Arts,  the 
Machinery  Hall 
and  the  Agricul- 
tural Building.  In 
addition  to  these 
were  various  other 
buildings  for 
minor  purposes, 
similar  to  those 
distributed  around 
the  Main  Exposi- 
tion Building  of 
Paris  in  the 
Champs  de  Mars. 

There     were 
cross  transepts 
th  i  rty-two    i  n 
length  of  the  nave, 


534 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


extending  through  both  on  the  north  and  south  sides,  and  having 


JARDINIERE,  GILT  BRONZE. 

Exhibited  at  Vi:nna,  1873. 


a  length  from  face  to  face  of  246  feet  3  inches.     The  main  entrance 
of  which  we  give  a  view  on  page  535,  was  in  the   middle  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.       535 


south  side  of  central  square.  It  was  designed  like  a  grand 
triumphal  arch,  having  a  central  arched  opening,  flanked  on  the 
sides  by  pairs  of  pilasters  decorated  between  with  niches,  figure- 


subjects   and   medallions   of  the    Emperor  and   Empress,  and   the 
whole  crowned  by  a  group  of  emblematic  figures  in  plaster. 

In  making  a  cursory  review  of  the  articles  exhibited  at 
Vienna,  we  may  state  that  the  display  was  the  most  extensive  that 
had  ever  previously  been  made  in  any  part  of  the  world,  and  the 


536 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


admirable  way  in  which  the  exhibition  had  been  carried  out  gave 
to  it  additional  interest.  Some  charming  works  in  Carved  Wood 
were  shown  by  Mr.  G.  A.  Rogers.  The  design  and  carving  of  the 
specimen  we  show  on  page  530  were  both  by  Mr.  Rogers. 


In  Goldsmiths'  Work  and  Jewelry,  Froment-Meurice — whose 
father  was  styled  the  Cellini  of  France — exhibited  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  work,  and  we  engrave  on  page  531  three  examples  of  his 
ordinary  every-day  productions,  which  are  always  characterized  by 
beauty,  richness  and  great  artistic  taste. 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.      537 

There  was  a  large  and  creditable  mineral  exhibit  from  the  United 
States;  coal,  iron,  lead,  copper  from  Lake  Superior,  quicksilver,  silver 
and  gold  from  Idaho  and  California,  and  emery  from  Massachusetts. 
The  ornamental  cast-iron  productions  of  Durenne,  of  Paris,  were 
particularly  noticeable  for  beauty  of  design  and  excellence  of  work. 
We  reproduce  on  page  532  a  specimen  of  railing  exhibited  by  him. 

We  close  the  very  few  engravings  of  the  exhibits  which  our 
limited  space  has  allowed  us  by  a  beautiful  flower-vase  in  gilt- 
bronze,  executed  by  Hollenbach  from  a  design  by  Claus,  of  Vienna, 


CONNECTICUT  STATE  BUILDING. 

which  was  among  the  exhibits,  and  we  are  glad  to  be  able  to  give 
a  picture  of  it,  which  is  represented  on  page  534- 

In  the  United  States,  local  exhibitions  had  been  a  common 
event  for  many  years.  The  Franklin  Institute,  of  Philadelphia — 
founded  in  1824 — early  initiated  a  system  of  exhibitions  for  the 
purpose  of  promoting  the  Mechanic  Arts,  awarding  medals  and 
premiums  to  inventors,  manufacturers  and  mechanics.  Its  first  exhi- 
bition was  held  at  Carpenters'  Hall,  in  the  autumn  of  1824,  attracting 
large  crowds  of  people,  and  was  attended  with  most  fortunate  results. 

These  exhibitions  were  continued,  at  intervals,  for  many  years, 
increasing  in  public  favor  and  usefulness.  The  last  was  held  on 


538 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Institute  in  1874,  in  a  building 
covering  an  area  of  two  acres  available  space  on  the  ground-floor, 
with  a  large  cellar  for  storage,  and  a  four-story  corner  building  for 
offices.  It  was  the  largest  exhibition  ever  held  in  Philadelphia, 
the  profits  added  greatly  to  the  revenues  of  the  Institute,  and  in 
every  respect  it  was  a  complete  success. 

The  American  Institute,  of  New  York,  has  for  many  years  held 
similar  exhibitions  with  the  most  satisfactory  results;  and,  of  late 
years,  both  Cincinnati  and  Chicago  have  held  annual  Expositions 


INDIANA  STATE  BUILDING. 

of  Industrial  Art  in  large,  permanent  buildings  erected  for  the 
purpose,  resulting  in  great  success,  both  financially  and  in  regard 
to  the  advantages  derived  from  them  by  the  exhibitors. 

If  the  veteran  navigator,  Henry  Hudson,  could  have  looked 
forward  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  when  he  ascended  Delaware 
Bay,  he  would  have  beheld  a  spectacle  almost  as  wonderful  as  the 
discovery  of  a  hemisphere ;  certainly  more  wonderful  than  the 
record  of  his  navigation  along  the  coast  of  the  New  World. 

The  bright  May  morning  which  beheld  the  opening  of  the 
International  Exhibition  of  1876,  would  have  shown  to  the  bold 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.      539 


navigator  tens  of  thousands  wending  their  way  westward  like 
pilgrims  to  Mecca;  all  towards  the  Mecca  of  Civilization;  the 
aggregation  of  the  world's  inventions,  industries  and  arts,  which 
was  thrown  open  to  the  public  on  the  loth  of  May,  1876,  withe ut 
pomp,  and  without  show.  A  certain  degree  of  formality  was 
attempted,  but  with  the  exception  of  a  few  speeches,  the  rendering 
of  the  Centennial  Ode,  and  a  few  congratulations,  there  was  none 
of  that  glitter  which  accompanies  the  openings  of  European  dis- 
plays of  a  similar  character. 


OHIO  STATE  BUILDING. 

After  the  Exhibition  was  declared  opened,  President  Grant  with 
the  Empress  of  Brazil  on  his  arm,  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil  with 
Mrs.  Grant,  walked  through  the  Main  Building  to  the  Corliss  Engine, 
which  was  started  by  President  Grant,  and  then  the  party  visited 
several  of  the  other  buildings  and  President  Grant  gave  a  recep- 
tion in  the  Judges'  Hall,  the  exterior  of  which  we  engrave  on 
page  539- 

For  several  months  it  seemed  as  if  fnancial  fiailure  would  be 
the  result  of  the  Exhibition;  but  the  great  heat  of  the  summer 
withheld  hundreds  of  thousands  who  would  have  liked  to  spend 


540 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


portions  of  every  day  in  the  week  in  those  attractive  Halls.  As 
the  cooler  weather  came,  the  crowds  came  also,  and  those  who  had 
made  the  most  they  could  of  the  Exhibition  during  the  months  of 
May,  June  •  and  July,  and  the  early  part  of  August  had  cause  to 
congratulate  themselves,  for  from  the  end  of  August  until  the  close 
of  the  Exhibition,  every  building,  especially  the  Art  Galleries,  were 
uncomfortably  full. 

The    Exhibition    now  was   pronounced  a  financial    success,  but 
the  doubt   in   the   future  was   to  what  extent  would   that  success 


NEW  JERSEY  STATE  BUILDING. 

reach?  Each  day  brought  its  hundred  thousand  visitors,  and  the 
system  of  State  days  which  the  Commissioners  inaugurated,  brought 
large  accessions,  until  the  day  devoted  to  Pennsylvania  beheld  the 
largest  number  of  visitors  ever  congregated  in  any  International 
Exhibition  on  one  day; — two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  thousand 
paid  for  admission  at  the  turnstiles  on  the  28th  of  September,  and 
when  this  information  was  cabled  to  London,  the  news  simply 
electrified  the  English, — possibly  the  effect  may  have  been  the 
same  on  the  French,  for  Paris  had  hitherto  prided  itself  upon  the 
fact  that  on  Sunday  the  2/th  of  October,  1867,  one  hundred  and 


HISTORY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS.       541 

seventy-three  thousand  nine  hundred  and  twenty-three  visitors  had 
paid  one  franc— twenty  cents — each  to  see  that  Great  Exhibition; 


and  now  it  rests  with  Paris,  or  any  other  European  city  to  gather 
together  in  one   enclosure,  on  one  day,  more  than  were  gathered 


542 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


on  Pennsylvania  day.     It  might  be  better  to  let  some  other  person 
say  it,  but  no    more  appropriate  place  than  this   can  be  found  to 


say  that  all  honor  is  due  to  the   citizens  of  Pennsylvania  for  the 
patriotic  support  given  to  the  Exhibition  from  the  moment  of  its 


HORTICULTURAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL  HALLS.    543 

inception   until  the   day  it   made   its    grand  effort.      The  causes  of 
its  success  may  be  attributed  to  the  following : — 

1.  The  honesty  and  energy  of  the  Finance  Committee. 

2.  The  display  made  by  the  exhibitors. 

3.  The  appreciation  of  the  public. 

These  were  the  principal  elements  of  the  success ;  but  great 
praise  and  gratitude  are  due  to  the  Woman's  Committee  for  the 
aid  it  gave  to  the  Commissioners  before  the  opening,  and  for  the 
admirable  exhibit  made  in  the  Woman's  Pavilion. 

In  the  last  few  pages  of  our  work  we  engrave  several  views 
of  the  interiors  and  pavilions  which  picturesquely  dotted  the 
grounds.  Many  of  these,  we  believe,  will  remain  permanently  on 
the  grounds,  either  under  the  care  of  the  Fairmount  Park  Com- 
missioners or  of  the  Permanent  Exhibition  Managers. 

We  have  already  in  this  division  referred  to  the  numbers  of 
visitors  at  previous  exhibitions;  it  will  now  be  interesting  to 
compare  those  with  the  visitors  to  our  own  exhibition. 

TOTAL  NUMBER.     TOTAL  AMOUNT. 

The  Exhibition  of  1851  was  open  141  days. 
The  greatest  number  of  visitors  was  on 
Tuesday,  October  7^—109,915 6,039,195  $2,121,610 

The  Exhibition  of  1855  was  open  200  days, 
Sundays  included.  The  greatest  number 
of  visitors  was  on  Sunday,  September  9th 
—  123>oi7 5,162,330  $640,506 

The  Exhibition  of  1862  was  open  171  days. 
The  greatest  number  of  visitors  was  on 
Thursday,  October  30th— 67,891 6,211,103  $2,042,651 

The  Exhibition  of  1867  was  open  217  days, 
Sundays  included.  The  greatest  number 

of  visitors  was  on  October  27th— 173,923  .    .    .    .8,805,969  $2,103,676 

These  are  exclusive  of  Billancourt. 

The  Exhibition  of  1873  was  open  186  days, 
Sundays  included.  The  greatest  number 
of  visitors  was  on  Sunday,  November  2d 
— '35,647 6,740,500  $1,032,388 

The  Exhibition  of  1876  was  open  160  days. 
The  greatest  number  of  visitors  was  on 
Thursday,  September  28111—257,168 8, 1 8 1, 080  $3,900,438 


544 


THE  GREA  T  EXHIBITION,  1876. 


The  gross  amount  received  by  the  Finance  Committee  from 
concessions,  percentages  on  sales  and  royalties  is  $495,010.75, 
making  a  total  of  $4,395.448.75  from  admissions  and  concessions. 

It  may  thus  be  said  that ''men  in  nations"  have  visited  the 
exhibitions  of  the  nations;  the  total  in  round  numbers  of  forty-two 


MEDALS. 

millions — equal  to  the  population  of  our  country.  The  increasing 
influence  of  exhibitions  is  best  shown  by  the  comparison  of  the 
greatest  attendances  at  each  exhibition,  and  we  may  bid  adieu  to  our 
readers  by  affirming  that  the  GREAT  EXHIBITION  OF  1876  is  the 
greatest  of  all  its  predecessors,  and  that  its  lessons  will  not  be  lost 
and  its  influence  will  be  felt  by  the  American  people  during  the 
second  century  of  their  country's  existence.